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Vertical Judicial Dialogues in Asylum Cases
Immigration and Asylum Law
and Policy in Europe

Edited by

Jan Niessen
Elspeth Guild

VOLUME 36

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ialp



Vertical Judicial Dialogues in

Asylum Cases
Standards on Judicial Scrutiny and Evidence in
International and European Asylum Law

By

Dana Baldinger

LEIDEN | BOSTON
 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Baldinger, Dana, 1969- author.

Vertical judicial dialogues in asylum cases : standards on judicial scrutiny and evidence in international
and European asylum law / by Dana Baldinger.
pages cm. -- (Immigration and asylum law and policy in Europe ; v. 36)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-29071-6 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Asylum, Right of--European Union countries.
2. Asylum, Right of. 3. Emigration and immigration law. 4. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
(1951 July 28). Protocols, etc., 1967 January 31. 5. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(1966 December 16) 6. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment
or Punishment (1984 December 10) 7. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (1950 November 5) I. Title.

KJE5202.B35 2015
342.08’3--dc23

2015008290

This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering
Latin, ipa, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities.
For more information, please www.brill.com/brill-typeface.

issn 1568-2749
isbn 978-90-04-29071-6 (hardback)
isbn 978-90-04-29072-3 (e-book)

Copyright 2015 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and
Hotei Publishing.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior written permission from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided
that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive,
Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa.
Fees are subject to change.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Contents

Acknowledgments ix
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Research Context and Reasons 1
1.2 Research Questions 5
1.3 Sources and Methodology 7
1.4 Methods and Rules of Interpretation 8
1.5 Structure of the Book 12
1.6 Limitations of the Research 13
1.7 State of the Art 14

2 The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (rc) and the
1967 Protocol (rp) Relating to the Status of Refugees 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Article 16: Access to Courts 25
2.3 Procedural Rights in Expulsion Cases: Article 32 30
2.4 Articles 16 and 32: The unhcr’s Position on Evidence and Judicial
Scrutiny 33
2.5 The Requirement of Co-operation with the unhcr 49
2.6 Concluding Remarks 62

3 The 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

(iccpr) 66
3.1 Introduction 66

iccpr, Part 1: Provisions on National Proceedings; Issues

of Intensity of Judicial Scrutiny and Evidentiary Issues in National
Judicial Proceedings 75
3.2 Basics: Introduction to the Provisions on National Proceedings 75
3.3 The Provisions on National Proceedings in the Context of National
Asylum Court Proceedings 84
3.4 Article 14: Intensity of National Judicial Scrutiny and Issues of
Evidence 98
vi Contents

iccpr, Part 2: The Assessment Performed by the hrc in Cases on

the Expulsion of Asylum Seekers 106
3.5 The Assessment Performed by the hrc in Cases on Expulsion of
Asylum Seekers 106
3.6 Concluding Remarks 132

4 The 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or

Degrading Treatment or Punishment (cat) 137
4.1 Introduction 137

cat, Part 1: Provisions on National Proceedings; Issues of

Intensity of Judicial Scrutiny and Evidentiary Issues in National
Judicial Proceedings 145
4.2 The cat’s Provisions on National Proceedings: Introduction and
Asylum Context 145
4.3 Impartial Investigation under Articles 12 and 13 cat 157
4.4 Article 15: The Prohibition on Using Evidence Obtained under
Torture 162

cat, Part 2: The Assessment Performed by the Committee against

Torture in Cases on Expulsion of Asylum Seekers 163
4.5 The Assessment Performed by the Committee against Torture 163
4.6 Concluding Remarks 225

5 The 1950 European Convention for the Protection of Human

Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (echr) 230
5.1 Introduction 230

echr, Part 1: Provisions on National Proceedings: Issues of

Intensity of Judicial Scrutiny and Evidentiary Issues in National Judicial
Proceedings 238
5.2 Basics: Introduction to the Provisions on National Proceedings 238
5.3 The Provisions on National Proceedings in the Asylum Context 244
5.4 Issues of Intensity of Judicial Scrutiny under Article 6, First
Paragraph 259
5.5 Article 6, First Paragraph: Evidentiary Issues in National Court
Proceedings 278
Contents vii

echr, Part 2: The Assessment Performed by the ECtHR in

Cases on Expulsion of Asylum Seekers 288
5.6 Rigorous Scrutiny 288
5.7 Concluding Remarks 348

6 European Union Asylum Law 355

6.1 Introduction 355
6.2 Issues of Evidence and Judicial Scrutiny under Articles 18
and 19 of the Charter 377
6.3 Issues of Evidence and Judicial Scrutiny under Article 47
of the Charter 382
6.4 Provisions on Evidentiary Issues in Secondary eu Asylum Law 416
6.5 Concluding Remarks 446

7 National Courts and the Independent and Rigorous Scrutiny 452

7.1 Towards a Coherent Set of Standards for Use by National
Courts 452
7.2 National Courts are ‘Double Bound’ by Treaty Obligations 454
7.3 The ‘Independent and Rigorous National Judicial Scrutiny’:
Sources of Interpretation 456
7.4 The Independent and Rigorous National Judicial Scrutiny
Defined 466
7.5 Concluding Remarks 481

8 Repeat Cases, Dublin Cases, Fast-Track National Proceedings 482

8.1 Repeat Asylum Cases 484
8.2 Dublin Cases 488
8.3 Fast-Track Proceedings 492

Final Conclusions 496

Evidence Presented by the Applicant 497
Independent Fresh Determination of the Facts, Judicial
Investigations 499

Bibliography 501
International Case law 522
Index 544
Curriculum Vitae 548
Acknowledgments

This book is the outcome of a PhD which I publicly defended at the Radboud
University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, on 16 April 2013. The text of the book
has been updated since. Final cut-off date is 1 June 2014. I would never have
been able to complete this work without the following people, to whom I will
always remain tremendously grateful.
First, Elspeth Guild and Kees Groenendijk, thank you so much for supervis-
ing, coaching and inspiring me throughout the entire research process, also
after the defence of my PhD. I learned so many different things from you dur-
ing the process of writing this book. I discovered vast bodies of case law which
I had, in fact, not been very familiar with before. I learned a lot about the rela-
tionship between international law and eu law and I discovered their impact
on national court proceedings in asylum cases.
Carla Eradus, President of the District Court of Amsterdam, and colleagues
in the administrative, criminal and juvenile law sections of the Court, thank
you for enabling me to combine my work as a judge with writing this book.
Karen Geertsema, Hannah Helmink and Marcelle Reneman, many thanks
for commenting on earlier versions of the chapters of this book and for our
numerous interesting meetings on procedural issues. I owe much gratitude
also to René Bruin, Kees Wouters and Hermine Masmeyer who commented on
earlier versions of the chapters on the cat, echr and eu law, and to professors
Ashley Terlouw, Roel Fernhout and Egbert Myjer for reviewing the PhD manu-
script and providing valuable comments.
Henja Korsten, your knowledge of the eu law databases and your willing-
ness to share it with me proved indispensable; thank you so much for your
time and enthusiasm. I also wish to thank Beverley Slaney for her editorial
work, Hannie van de Put for making the lay out and Carolus Grütters for help-
ing me out with the index. Last but not least, I wish to express my deep grati-
tude and love to Siros, my husband, and to our wonderful sons, Nour and Aziz.
At moments when I felt exhausted from combining my judicial and academic
work, you provided the necessary distraction, helped me see the relativity of
things and made me look on the bright side. Mom, Dad in Heaven, sisters,
thank you so much for giving me the warm and stable childhood I enjoyed.
Now that I am a juvenile judge, and a mother myself, I see more than ever
before how incredibly important a stable childhood is.
When I worked as an asylum judge between 2005 and 2013, every week indi-
viduals in the most vulnerable circumstances, far away from their homes and
home countries, appeared before me. It is these people who continually
x Acknowledgments

reminded and remind me that an independent, impartial, fair and thorough

judicial investigation and hearing is a crucial human right, and that national
judges are the primary guardians of it.

Insufficient facts will often result in the judge having to assess the reli-
ability of the account given by the person concerned. Bearing in mind the
subjective elements which are inherent in making such an assessment,
judges will to a certain extent, in an area where the most fundamental
human rights are at stake, find themselves on thin ice. Given what is at
stake, a conclusion that an asylum-seeker’s account is not credible should
therefore be based on a thorough investigation of the facts and be accom-
panied by adequate reasoning.
judge thomassen of the European Court of Human Rights in her concur-
ring opinion to Said v. the Netherlands (2005)
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

A-G Advocate General

a&mr Asiel- en Migrantenrecht
cat Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment
ceas Common European Asylum System
cjeu Court of Justice of the European Union
CMLRev Common Market Law Review
CoE Council of Europe
ComAT Committee against Torture
echr European Convention for the Protection of Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
ECtHR European Court of Human Rights
ejil European Journal of International Law
ejml European Journal of Migration and Law
ELRev European Law Review
ets European Treaty Series
eu European Union
eu Charter Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
eu Dublin Regulation Council Regulation (ec) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003
establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determin-
ing the Member State responsible for examining an asy-
lum application lodged in one of the Member States by a
third-country national
eu Procedures Directive Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on
minimum standards on procedures in Member States for
granting and withdrawing refugee status
eu Qualification Directive Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on mini-
mum standards for the qualification and status of third
country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as
persons who otherwise need international protection
and the content of the protection granted
Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the
qualification of third-country nationals or stateless per-
sons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a
uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for
­subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protec-
tion granted.
xii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

eu Reception Conditions Directive Council Directive 2003/9/EC of 27 January 2003

laying down minimum standards for the recep-
tion of asylum seekers
eu Temporary Protection Directive Council Directive 2001/55 of 20 July 2001 on mini-
mum standards for giving temporary protection
in the event of a mass influx of displaced persons
and on measures promoting a balance of efforts
between Member States in receiving such per-
sons and bearing the consequences thereof
ExCOM Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s
Programme
gaor General Assembly Official Record
hrc Human Rights Committee
hrq Human Rights Quarterly
hrw Human Rights Watch
iarlj International Association of Refugee Law Judges
iccpr International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights
icescr International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights
icj International Court of Justice
ijrl International Journal of Refugee Law
jv Jurisprudentie Vreemdelingenrecht
ltte Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
nav Nieuwsbrief Asiel- en Vluchtelingenrecht
njcm-Bulletin Nederlands Juristen Comité voor de
Mensenrechten- Bulletin
oau Organisation of African Unity
oj of the eu Official Journal of the European Union
para. paragraph
pkk Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers’
Party)
rc, Refugee Convention Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
rp, Refugee Protocol Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees
Res. Resolution
rv Rechtspraak Vreemdelingenrecht
teu Treaty on the European Union
tfeu Treaty on the Functioning of the European
Union
List Of Abbreviations And Acronyms xiii

udhr Universal Declaration of Human Rights

uk United Kingdom
un United Nations
unga United Nations General Assembly
unhrc United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
unhcr Handbook unhcr Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining
Refugee Status
unts United Nations Treaty Series
Vol. Volume
vtc Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
 chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Research Context and Reasons

Every judge who has worked in a court for a number of years will admit that
facts and evidence play a crucial role in judicial investigations and judicial
decision making. This not only goes for criminal law and civil law, but certainly
also for administrative law. In individual cases before the court, judges apply
legal norms to the established facts. To be able to do this, they must first obtain
clarity about the facts. This is not problematic when the parties to the case do
not argue about the facts. In many cases, however, the parties disagree about
what actually happened. In such cases, the first step in the judicial investiga-
tive and decision making process is determination of the facts. At this stage,
the judge will determine the facts, on the basis of the statements by the parties
and, possibly, other available evidence.
In asylum1 cases, determination of the facts is a particularly difficult task.
The question which has to be answered is whether a risk exists that the indi-
vidual will be persecuted or ill-treated in the future, upon expulsion to the
country of origin. As we can never predict what will happen in the future, the
assessment of a future risk is inherently a very difficult task.2 At the same time,
much is at stake in asylum cases: the expulsion of an individual who fears that,
in his or her country of origin, his or her life or safety will be at risk.
There are more particularities which make determination of the facts in
asylum cases an extremely difficult job. The facts, as related by the asylum
seeker, have mostly happened in a country far away from decision makers and
judges in the country of refuge. In addition to this, there is often not much
direct evidence corroborating the statements by the asylum seeker. As a result,
the reliability and credibility of the flight narrative become very important.
Bearing in mind the subjective elements which are inherent in making an
assessment of the credibility and reliability of an asylum seeker, judges – and,
of course, administrative decision makers as well – will find themselves on
thin ice, in an area where the most fundamental human rights are at stake.3

1 By ‘asylum’ I mean the protection offered to a non-citizen on account of a threat abroad, by

a state, within the territory of that state. See Battjes (2006), p. 6.
2 See in the same vein Wouters (2009), p. 26.
3 Concurring opinion of European Court of Human Rights Judge Thomassen to the judgment
in the case of Said v. the Netherlands, 5 July 2005, Appl. No. 2345/02.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2015 | doi 10.1163/9789004290723_002

2 chapter 1

The immediate reason for my embarking upon this research was formed by
two judgments of the ECtHR: Said v. the Netherlands (2005)4 and Salah Sheekh
v. the Netherlands (2007).5 These two judgments clearly demonstrated that the
national court and the international court (the ECtHR) are sometimes miles
apart when it comes to determining the facts and assessing the risk in asylum
cases. In both cases, the District Court of Amsterdam, where I had just started
working as an immigration and asylum judge, functioned as the national first
instance court. In both cases, this national court approved the stance of the
administration that there was no reason to grant asylum to the individuals
concerned. In both cases, the ECtHR determined the facts and assessed the
risk in a completely different way and assumed that there were substantial
grounds for believing that upon expulsion there was a real risk that the indi-
viduals would be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treat-
ment in their country of origin, resulting in the determination that their
expulsion would lead to a violation of Article 3 echr. The ECtHR based its
ruling in both judgments on substantive grounds. At the same time, there were
clear signs that the ECtHR was dissatisfied with the level of judicial scrutiny
offered at national level in the Netherlands. In a concurring opinion to Said v.
the Netherlands (2005), Judge Thomassen expressed the view that no serious
investigation had been carried out by the Netherlands authorities (administra-
tive and judicial). To illustrate this, Thomassen pointed to the fact that the
District Court of Amsterdam had not investigated the identity documents pre-
sented by the claimant during the court proceedings and had refused to hear
Mr Khalifa, a witness, put forward by the claimant, as it had already found the
flight narrative incredible.6
In Salah Sheekh v. the Netherlands (2007), the ECtHR declared the complaint
admissible although the claimant had failed to lodge a higher appeal against
the Amsterdam Court’s judgment to the Council of State and had, thus, failed
to exhaust national legal remedies before applying to the ECtHR, as required
by Article 35, first paragraph, ECHR.7 By declaring the complaint admissible,
the ECtHR conveyed the message that further appeal to the Council of State

4 ECtHR, Said v. the Netherlands, 5 July 2005, Appl. No. 2345/02.

5 ECtHR, Salah Sheekh v. the Netherlands, 11 January 2007, Appl. No. 1948/04.
6 Concurring opinion of European Court of Human Rights Judge Thomassen to the judgment
in the case of Said v. the Netherlands, 5 July 2005, Appl. No. 2345/02.
7 Article 35, first paragraph, echr stipulates: ‘The Court may only deal with the matter after all
domestic remedies have been exhausted, according to the generally recognized rules of
international law, and within a period of six months from the date on which the final deci-
sion was taken.’
Introduction 3

constituted no effective national remedy. Although this conclusion rested on

substantive reasons8 the judgment in Salah Sheekh contained a suspiciously
elaborate explanation on how the ECtHR itself determines the facts and
assesses the risk of a breach of Article 3, arousing the impression that the Court
wished to set an example for national courts.
This dissatisfaction with the level of judicial scrutiny offered at national
level in the Netherlands deeply troubled me. Together with a colleague from
the Amsterdam Court, Willem van Bennekom, I analysed a number of well-
known judgments of the ECtHR in expulsion cases concerning asylum seekers
to find out in a more precise way how the ECtHR assessed the risk.9 We discov-
ered significant differences between the judicial scrutiny applied at interna-
tional level and our own national judicial review. First, the intensity10 or
thoroughness of the judicial scrutiny was very different. It seemed that the
ECtHR, fully independently and on its own account, determined the facts and
assessed the risk, whereas national asylum courts in the Netherlands had to
pay deference to the position taken by the administration concerning the cred-
ibility of the past facts as stated by the asylum seeker. Second, issues of evi-
dence, such as the admission and evaluation of evidence, were approached
and resolved in very different ways at the international and the national level.

8 The ECtHR found that further appeal to the Council of State did not constitute an effec-
tive remedy as it stood virtually no prospect of success, given the constant jurisprudence
of the Council of State on the individualisation requirement for assuming an Article
3-risk and on internal protection alternatives in Somalia, see ECtHR, Salah Sheekh v. the
Netherlands, 11 January 2007, Appl. No. 1948/04, paras. 123 and 124.
9 These judgments were: Cruz Varas and others v. Sweden, 20 March 1991, Appl. No.
15576/89; Vilvarajah and others v. the uk, 30 October 1991, Appl. Nos. 13163/87, 13164/87,
13165/87, 13447/87 and 13448/87; Chahal v. the uk, 15 November 1996, Appl. No. 22414/93;
Ahmed v. Austria, 17 December 1996, Appl. No. 25964/94; Bahaddar v. the Netherlands, 19
February 1998, Appl. No. 25894/94; Jabari v. Turkey, 11 July 2000, Appl. No. 40035/98; Hilal
v. the uk, 6 March 2001, Appl. No. 45276/99; Mamatkulov and Abdurasulovic, 6 February
2003, Appl. Nos. 46827/99 and 46951/99; Thampibillai v. the Netherlands, 17 February 2004,
Appl. No. 61350/00; Venkadajalasarma v. the Netherlands, 17 February 2004, Appl. No.
58510/00; Mamatkulov and Askarov v. Turkey, 4 February 2005, Appl. Nos. 46827/99 and
46951/99; Müslim v. Turkey, 26 April 2005, Appl. No. 53566/99; Said v. Netherlands, 5 July
2005, Appl. No. 2345/02; N. v. Finland, 26 July 2005, Appl. No. 38885/02; Bader and Kanbor
v. Sweden, 8 November 2005, Appl. No. 13284/04; D. and others v. Turkey, 22 June 2006,
Appl. No. 24245/03; Salah Sheekh v. the Netherlands, 11 January 2007, Appl. No. 1948/04.
10 The intensity of judicial scrutiny relates to how thorough or rigorous the court examines
a certain issue. The intensity of judicial scrutiny concerns the question whether the court
pays deference to (part of) the administrative decision or, instead, carries out its own
rigorous assessment.
4 chapter 1

The discovered significant differences between the judicial scrutiny applied

at international level by the ECtHR and the national judicial review in the
Netherlands seemed problematic to me. These differences seemed to run
counter to the notion of subsidiarity, meaning that citizens should be able to
vindicate their rights in the national courts and that, however well organized,
international protection of human rights can never be as effective as a well-
functioning national system of protection.11
If national judicial proceedings offer fewer safeguards compared to the pro-
ceedings before the ECtHR, it will always make sense for individuals to apply to
the ECtHR. This would clearly run counter to the subsidiary nature of the
Convention system. In Salah Sheekh v. the Netherlands (2007), the ECtHR was
particularly clear that in cases concerning expulsion or extradition involving
an Article 3-claim rigorous scrutiny is needed. As the considerations in the
judgment were so elaborate on this point, the judgment gave the impression
that the ECtHR had specifically and critically reacted to the (partially) mar-
ginal judicial review applied by the asylum courts in the Netherlands and that
the ECtHR had wanted to remind national courts of its subsidiary nature.12
The idea that different standards were problematic was not shared by every-
one, though. At the time when this research was embarked upon, the highest
national asylum court in the Netherlands, the Council of State took the posi-
tion that different standards at national and international judicial level were
acceptable.13 In support of this position, it was argued that the position of
national courts was different from that of the ECtHR, as national courts oper-
ated within a framework of checks and balances with the national executive
and legislative powers.
In discussions about this dilemma at the District Court of Amsterdam, the
term ‘national procedural autonomy’ was often used, but nobody knew exactly
whether and to what extent that concept would sufficiently justify the discov-
ered differences.
Thus, the small-scale investigation, conducted in early 2007, made me anxious
to find out in a more precise way what lessons on both main aspects – intensity

11 Barkhuysen (1998), pp. 12 and 13. See also the annual report for 2006 of the ECtHR, p. 30.
12 ECtHR, Salah Sheekh v. the Netherlands, 11 January 2007, Appl. No. 1948/04, para. 136;
Wouters (2009), p. 339.
13 See the judgment of the Council of State of 5 June 2006, 200602132/1 and 200602135/1,
para. 2.6; it was stated that the immigration judge in the Netherlands is not obliged to
review the administrative stance on flight narrative credibility in the same way as the
ECtHR investigates whether or not the Netherlands have violated their treaty obligation
under Article 3.
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