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 Homo erectus
Pleistocene Evidence from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia
The Middle Awash Series

Tim White, Editor

 Homo erectus
Pleistocene Evidence from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia

ED I T ED BY W. H E N R Y G I L B E R T AND B E R H A N E A S FAW

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley Los Angeles London

University of California Press, one of the most distinguished university presses in the United States, enriches lives
around the world by advancing scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its activities are
supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic contributions from individuals and institutions. For
more information, visit www.ucpress.edu.

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd.

London, England

© 2008 by the Regents of the University of California

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Homo erectus : Pleistocene Evidence from the Middle

Awash, Ethiopia / W. Henry Gilbert and Berhane Asfaw, editors.
p. cm. — (The Middle Awash series; 1)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-520-25120-5 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Homo erectus—Ethiopia—Middle Awash. 2. Geology,
Stratigraphic—Pleistocene. 3. Paleontology—Pleistocene.
4. Excavations (Archaeology)—Ethiopia—Middle Awash. 5. Human
remains (Archaeology)—Ethiopia—Middle Awash. 6. Middle Awash
(Ethiopia)—Antiquities. I. Gilbert, W. Henry, 1970– II. Asfaw, Berhane.

GN284.H65 2007
569.9’70963—dc22
2007015647

Manufactured in the United States of America

10 09 08
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (R 1997)
(Permanence of Paper).

Cover illustration: Frontal view of Homo erectus calvaria BOU-VP-2/66 from the Daka Member. Photograph by
David Brill.
 Contents

Contributors vii
Foreword ix
Garniss Curtis
Series Preface xi
Tim White
Preface xvii
Berhane Asfaw and W. Henry Gilbert
Acknowledgments xix

1 Introduction 1
W. Henry Gilbert

2 Geology and Geochronology 1 3

Giday WoldeGabriel, W. Henry Gilbert, William K. Hart,
Paul R. Renne, and Stanley H. Ambrose

3 Bovidae 4 5
W. Henry Gilbert

4 Carnivora 9 5
W. Henry Gilbert, Nuria García, and F. Clark Howell

5 Cercopithecidae 1 1 5
W. Henry Gilbert and Steve Frost

6 Equidae 1 3 3
W. Henry Gilbert and Raymond L. Bernor

7 Giraffidae 1 6 7
W. Henry Gilbert

v
CO N T E N TS

8 Hippopotamidae 1 7 9
Jean-Renaud Boisserie and W. Henry Gilbert

9 Elephantidae 1 9 3
Haruo Saegusa and W. Henry Gilbert

10 Rhinocerotidae 2 2 7
W. Henry Gilbert

11 Suidae 2 3 1
W. Henry Gilbert

12 Rare Taxa 2 6 1
W. Henry Gilbert and Thomas Stidham

13 Homo erectus Cranial Anatomy 2 6 5

Berhane Asfaw, W. Henry Gilbert, and Gary D. Richards

14 Tomographic Analysis of the Daka Calvaria 3 2 9

W. Henry Gilbert, Ralph L. Holloway, Daisuke Kubo, Reiko T. Kono, and
Gen Suwa

15 Hominid Systematics 349

W. Henry Gilbert

16 Daka Member Hominid Postcranial Remains 373

W. Henry Gilbert

17 Ecological and Biogeographic Context of the Daka Member 3 97

W. Henry Gilbert

18 Conclusions: Evolutionary Insights from the Daka Member 413

W. Henry Gilbert

Bibliography 427

Index 449

vi
 Contributors

W. Henry Gilbert Jean-Renaud Boisserie

Department of Anthropology Unité Paléobiodiversité et Paléoenvironnements and
California State University, East Bay; and Département Histoire de la Terre
Human Evolution Research Center Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle
University of California, Berkeley Paris, France; and
Human Evolution Research Center
University of California, Berkeley; and
Berhane Asfaw
Laboratoire de Géobiologie, Biochronologie et
Rift Valley Research Service Paléontologie Humaine
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Université de Poitiers, France

Steve Frost
Stanley H. Ambrose
Department of Anthropology Department of Anthropology
Center for African Studies University of Oregon, Eugene
Nutritional Sciences Interdisciplinary
Nuria García
Graduate Program
Program in Ecology and Departamento de Paleontología
Evolutionary Biology Universidad Complutense de Madrid F. C. Geológicas
University of Illinois, Urbana Madrid, Spain
Centro (UCM-ISCIII) de Evolución y
Comportamiento Humanos
Raymond L. Bernor Madrid, Spain; and
Department of Anatomy Human Evolution Research Center
Laboratory of Evolutionary Biology University of California, Berkeley
Howard University
Washington, DC; and William K. Hart
National Science Foundation Department of Geology
GEO/EAR Sedimentary Geology and Miami University Geology Field Station
Paleobiology Program Miami University
Arlington, Virginia Oxford, Ohio

vi i
CO N T R IBU TO R S

Ralph L. Holloway Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry

Department of Anthropology San Francisco, California; and
Columbia University, New York Human Evolution Research Center
University of California, Berkeley
F. Clark Howell (deceased)
Human Evolution Research Center Haruo Saegusa
University of California, Berkeley Museum of Nature and Human Activities
Sanda, Hyogo, Japan
Reiko Kono
Department of Anthropology
Thomas Stidham
National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo
Faculty of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection
Daisuke Kubo
Department of Biology
Department of Biological Sciences
Texas A&M University, College Station
Graduate School of Science
The University of Tokyo, Japan
Gen Suwa

Paul R. Renne The University Museum

Berkeley Geochronology Center; and The University of Tokyo, Japan
Earth and Planetary Sciences Department
University of California, Berkeley Giday WoldeGabriel
Environmental Geology and Spatial Analysis Group
Gary D. Richards Earth and Environmental Sciences Division
Department of Anatomy Los Alamos National Laboratory
University of the Pacific Los Alamos, New Mexico

vi i i
 Foreword

The great rifts of Africa are huge pull-apart or tensional zones whose numerous normal
faults often drop their central parts thousands of meters below their margins. The Eastern
Rift forms a natural hydraulic catchment almost everywhere it is exposed terrestrially.
This dynamic system of horsts, grabens, accommodation faults, and uneven land surfaces
complexly overlays the rift’s axis. Shallow and ephemeral lakes form in the broken terrain,
and rivers fill the lakes with sediment. Continued tectonic activity exposes these sediments
and their contents to erosion—and to paleoanthropological research.
With nutrient-rich lakes, stream margins, gallery forests, and grassy sumplands, these
geological systems provided ecological circumstances attractive to early hominids. Here
the forerunners of humans lived and died. Some were entombed in sediments that pos-
sessed the right chemical array to fossilize their bones. The Middle Awash study area in the
Afar Depression of eastern Ethiopia is a place where conditions were especially conducive
to these processes.
Over the last 25 years the Middle Awash study area has proven to be one of the richest
fossil areas in eastern Africa. It comprises the longest single record of human evolution
on earth, with hominid fossils ranging in age from nearly six million years to around
fifty thousand years. Middle Awash sediments regularly interred mammalian remains
and archaeological traces, and subsequent erosion has exposed scores of vantages into the
deep past. Through these portals we see our ancestors across geological time, from small-
brained, ape-like Ardipithecus, through the development of tool use, to the first of our
species, Homo sapiens.
I have had the good fortune of working in the Middle Awash on several occasions.
In the months I have spent there, I joined and observed a large group of staff, students,
and researchers working under extreme conditions. I never once heard a complaint. Local
Afar pastoralists and world-renowned scientists worked side-by-side, digging wells, gather-
ing firewood, cutting roads, surveying, excavating, sieving, and performing the countless
other tasks that are required to bring fossils from where they occur naturally to a state that
allows their presentation in volumes like this one.
One of my fondest memories is of the late Desmond Clark. By the early 1990s, I
had known and admired him for over 30 years. Work was intensifying at Bouri, and

ix
FO RE WO R D

Desmond—then in his late seventies—with dimming eyesight but a brightly shimmering

passion for paleoanthropology—loaded his gear into the vehicle early in the morning. He
and his crew unloaded at a Daka archaeology site, sent the car on its way, put up a large
canvas tarpaulin over the excavation, and commenced working. I was dropped nearby, and
began surveying Bouri sediments, making interpretations, and looking for good volcanic
samples. In so doing, I came across a site with numerous hippo fossils and five basalt hand
axes.
The nearest basalt flow was over two kilometers away, and the hominids that made
them, Daka Member hominids, had transported the raw tool material over this distance to
the site. When I went to tell Desmond of this, I suggested that we have a look when the
landcruiser returned. He objected—he couldn’t wait to see the site. So we walked the sun-
baked kilometer from his excavation to the handaxes I had found, excitedly discussing the
potential vindication for his hypothesis that Acheulean tools were occasionally made at
the site of butchery.
“This is proof,” he said upon arrival. I asked, “Do you think they killed the hippo or
were they exploiting an already-dead carcass?” He responded quickly, “Oh, I think they
killed it.” Clearly he had thought about it before and did not perceive Homo erectus as a
stupid brute. Later, an excellent Ar/Ar date was derived from a tuff overlying the site. It
was close to one million years old. Within 500 meters of this fossilized carcass were several
other such localities variously preserving associations of fossils, Acheulean tools, and deb-
itage, all within chronologically-controlled contexts.
Exploration of the human past at Bouri and other Middle Awash locales will continue
for centuries to come. The initial archaeological background of the Daka Member discov-
eries has already been presented by Jean de Heinzelin, Desmond Clark, and others (de
Heinzelin et al. 2000a). The pages that follow in the current volume represent the second
major published component of Daka-related research. They document the paleontology,
revise the stratigraphy, characterize the paleoenvironment, and present Daka Homo erectus
fossils in the comprehensive manner that Desmond anticipated.
Garniss Curtis
Professor Emeritus of Geology,
Department of Earth and Planetary Science,
University of California, Berkeley
Founder, Berkeley Geochronology Center
September 2007

x
 Series Preface

The Middle Awash valley of Ethiopia is a unique natural laboratory for the study of
human origins and evolution. Sediments measuring more than a kilometer in thickness
lie exposed here on the floor and margins of the Afar Rift. They provide an unparalleled
composite geological, paleontological, and archaeological record of the human past. This
is Earth’s longest and deepest record of early hominid occupation, environment, techno-
logical development, and evolution.
The Middle Awash study area is a paleoanthropological resource very different from
the nearby richly fossiliferous, stratigraphically simple, and temporally limited deposits at
Hadar, where Australopithecus afarensis was found in the 1970s. The Middle Awash also
differs from the more continuous depositional sequence of the Omo Shungura Formation
of southern Ethiopia and from the time-compressed and spatially constrained strata of
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. In contrast, the Middle Awash affords a series of radioisotopi-
cally calibrated “windows” opening on different time slices of the deep past, rather than a
continuous accumulation of Miocene through Holocene deposits. Here, in a single valley
in the Horn of Africa, it is now possible to sample dozens of biological lineages, including
our own, through geological time.
The study area occupies the southwestern corner of the Afar Depression where it
sits atop an active segment of the African rift system. Here, crustal extension through
the last six million years created shifting centers of fluviatile and lacustrine sedimen-
tary deposition. Today, the modern landscape of the Middle Awash is a tectonically and
geomorphologically created patchwork of eroding sediments. These deposits yield the
remains of ancient organisms and their environments.
The paleoanthropological importance of the Middle Awash was first revealed in the
late 1960s and early 1970s by the pioneering work of geologist Maurice Taieb. Taieb
and colleagues focused their efforts on the Hadar fossil field 75 kilometers to the north.
Meanwhile, Jon Kalb and his Rift Valley Research Mission in Ethiopia extended Taieb’s
preliminary Middle Awash surveys. Their field investigations ended in 1978. In 1981
the late Berkeley professor J. Desmond Clark invited me to join him in initiating multi-
disciplinary work on the geological, archaeological, and paleontological resources of this
unique part of the Afar. The Middle Awash project was born.

xi
S E RIE S P R E FAC E

This project is an ongoing multidisciplinary effort to elucidate human origins and

evolution. A carefully planned program of exploration, focused research, and resource man-
agement has maximized results. Middle Awash field investigations can be loosely divided
into three stages for each of the many fossiliferous packages in the study area. Exploration
identifies and constrains the package. Focused research then establishes its contents and
chronostratigraphic relationships, generating most primary data. Long-term management
then allows additional data recovery as erosion and excavation continue. Meanwhile,
ground-truth information is synthesized with space- and aerial-based imagery to guide
further fieldwork, while other field-based data are subjected to laboratory analyses.
This integrated research strategy matches ongoing problems of human evolutionary
studies with the unique resources of the rich and complex Middle Awash repository.
Hundreds of team members from nearly 20 different nations play key roles in this pro-
cess. Paleoanthropology, by definition, is multidisciplinary. In this historical science most
objects of investigation are often unique, fragile, and irreplaceable, derived from contexts
that are erased during their extraction. This is a science best done deliberately, carefully,
and thoroughly. At 25 years, the Middle Awash research effort is both complex and pro-
tracted compared to many laboratory-based efforts in modern science. Project success is
owed to this long-term perspective and to sustained funding for simultaneous research on
multiple fronts.
In its efforts to illuminate African prehistory and paleontology, including the origin
and evolution of hominids and their technologies, the Middle Awash project encompasses
three basic areas of research: geology, archaeology, and paleontology. A fourth dimension,
crucial to the project, is capacity building. During the last century, paleoanthropological
research in Ethiopia was traditionally conducted by foreign-based expeditions, with little
or no scientific collaboration by Ethiopian institutions or individuals. From its nascence,
the Middle Awash project has dedicated itself to developing local scientific personnel and
infrastructure that today characterize internationally prominent Ethiopian field and labo-
ratory paleoanthropology.
The Middle Awash project gives priority to constructing an accurate time-stratigraphic
framework for its fossil discoveries and to nesting these discoveries into paleoenviron-
mental contexts. As of the time of this writing, the Middle Awash research project has
recovered ⬎260 hominids from 15 separate temporal horizons. Many of these fossils are
pivotal to an understanding of the evolution of our family, genus, and species. The recov-
ered hominid remains are but a tiny fraction of the paleobiological evidence amassed by
the Middle Awash project to date. Totals as of this writing (2007) are more than 17,000
cataloged vertebrate specimens; more than 1,200 geological samples; and thousands of
lithic artifacts. All recovered fossils and artifacts are permanently housed in the collections
of the National Museum of Ethiopia. These data, all painstakingly extracted from radio-
isotopically calibrated and stratigraphically controlled sedimentary contexts, constitute an
exceptional record of Africa’s past.
This progress has been realized by a global scientific consortium of involved laboratories
and facilities. The research has been conducted by team members working under challeng-
ing field and laboratory conditions in roles as diverse as translator, archaeologist, Ethiopian
government representative, mechanic, geochronologist, cook, paleobotanist, guide, fossil

xii
 SERIES PREFACE

preparator, and dozens more. A full listing of fieldwork participants and primary laboratory
researchers resides at the web site of the Middle Awash Project (http://middleawash.berkeley.
edu). Middle Awash research results are realized through the support of institutions within
Ethiopia and beyond. The continuous financial support of the National Science Foundation
and the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at Los Alamos National Laboratory in
New Mexico, with additional assistance from many other organizations and individuals, is
gratefully acknowledged (see acknowledgments to each volume).
The Middle Awash project, like most scientific endeavors, uses peer-reviewed pub-
lications as the primary means by which its data are shared. Publication of the primary
data generated by any such large multidisciplinary project is a formidable and essential
undertaking. In paleoanthropology, the most important discoveries are traditionally first
announced in high-impact journals and then, after more detailed analysis, published in
specialty journals and monographs. In envisioning how to present the most significant
discoveries of the Middle Awash study area in book form, we had the advantage of more
than a century of scholarly publication in this field.
The Middle Awash Series concept launches with the publication of this volume on the
geological background and paleontological content of the Daka Member of the Bouri For-
mation. The series will proceed as each subsequent, edited, stand-alone volume features
the original research results of collaborating teams of project scientists who work together
to illuminate a particular temporal period of paleoanthropological significance. Forth-
coming volumes detail the project’s discoveries of Ardipithecus kadabba, A. ramidus, and
the early anatomically near-modern Homo sapiens idaltu from Herto Bouri. Additional
volumes will be added to document the project’s active ongoing field research.
The research team envisions a set of volumes that shares similar production values,
organization, and methods of coverage. Within each volume, richly illustrated chapters
contributed by project scientists will be organized by topic. The accounts of the fossils,
particularly the hominid fossils, will go beyond mere anatomical description and will be
explicitly comparative. This series will place on permanent record the definitive accounts
of the most major discoveries of the Middle Awash research project.
To take advantage of the opportunities opened by the rise of information technology,
we have taken steps to integrate the series with online digital resources. We have estab-
lished a Middle Awash web site (http://middleawash.berkeley.edu) that features an acces-
sible, user-friendly portal to project activities and accomplishments, including a full
bibliographic listing of all paleoanthropologically relevant work published on the area
since the earliest Italian geological explorations in the 1930s.
Another feature of the electronic interface to the Middle Awash discoveries is its
specimen-level presentation. Modern digital informatics has allowed a proliferation of
web-based faunal lists and other compendia that are increasingly used in meta-analyses
ostensibly designed to explore global relationships between data sets as diverse as proxies of
global climatic change and fossil evidence for biological evolution. Vertebrate paleontology
and paleoanthropology have both witnessed an explosion of uncritical uses of secondary-
and tertiary-level faunal lists and other accounts to explore these relationships. These
analyses, and the conclusions based upon them, are only as good as the primary data upon
which they are constructed.

xi i i
S E RIE S P R E FAC E

Specimen-level catalog detail must form the empirical foundation of any such synthetic
investigations. However, the necessary comprehensive detail on individual specimens and
their provenience is traditionally lacking from project-level syntheses in paleoanthropol-
ogy. Therefore, we have endeavored to accompany each of the volumes in the Middle
Awash Series with full and free electronic access to specimen-based catalog detail for each
and every collected vertebrate fossil. Furthermore, our accompanying web site archive will
release, with the publication of each respective volume in the Middle Awash Series, digital
photographic coverage of all cataloged fossils and special micro-CT-generated animations
for selected hominid specimens. We hope these efforts to integrate and archive scholarly
printed and digital resources will move paleoanthropology forward into a new century of
data sharing.
This series is dedicated to the late F. Clark Howell (see tributes at http://herc.berkeley.edu/
fc_howell_memorial), whose global vision, detailed knowledge, and passion for paleoan-
thropology inspires all the participants of the Middle Awash research project.
Tim White
Human Evolution Research Center
Berkeley, California
July 2007

xiv
 I am afraid a good many scientists have the same feelings about Rhodesian
Man. Even his fossilized skull has been the source of continual anthropological
headaches. He is unique, isolated, and problematical. It is difficult to know
where to place him or why he existed at all. He cannot be dismissed as an
unmitigated nuisance, for there stand his bones, indisputable evidence that this
extraordinary human once lived in Africa. His problem is almost as baffling as
that of Piltdown Man, although the dilemma is not the same.
—Roy Chapman Andrews, Meet Your Ancestors: A Biography of Primitive Man (1945)

It seems to me more likely that the Far Eastern Pithecanthropus and our East
African skull have a common ancestor much further back, and that it was
these African hominids (with some Pithecanthropine resemblances in a few
characters) that gave rise eventually to Homo.
—Louis S. B. Leakey, “Very Early East African Hominidae and
Their Ecological Setting” (1963)

Lastly, the discovery in upper levels of the Olduvai gorge of a skull of primitive
appearance associated with stone implements assigned to the Chellean phase of
palaeolithic culture has raised the possibility that H. erectus—or a type closely
related to it—extended its geographical distribution to East Africa.
—W. E. Le Gros Clark, The Antecedents of Man (1971)

Human evolutionary studies are equally historical and processual. The

historical documentation afforded by fossil and archaeological records affords
the basic stuff from which hypotheses are generated, tested through analysis
and controlled comparisons, and ultimately eventuates in development of
sustainable and productive theoretical frameworks.
—F. Clark Howell, “Evolutionary Implications of Altered Perspectives on Hominine
Demes and Populations in the Later Pleistocene of Western Eurasia” (1998)
This Page Left Intentionally Blank
 Preface

Our ever-expanding synthetic knowledge of human evolution comes from the integration
of data sets from contemporary, actualistic, paleontological, archaeological, and geological
contexts. The evidence of the prehistoric record represents a major concrete basis for testing
hypotheses, predictions, speculations, and conjectures about the human past. This prehis-
toric evidence is always partial, but often profoundly important. It is evidence that accu-
mulates through time, and is continuously subjected to critical inquiry. The presentation
of such evidence in detail sufficient to underpin that inquiry is fundamentally important
in modern paleoanthropology.
The Daka Member of Ethiopia’s Bouri Formation dates to the early Pleistocene, about
one million years ago. Several Homo erectus fossils, hundreds of vertebrate remains from
diverse taxa, and abundant archaeology have all been recovered from spatiotemporally
controlled contexts within sediments exposed by tectonics and erosion along the Bouri
Peninsula.
This volume presents the geological and paleontological evidence from the Daka
Member. This evidence has been amassed by the research of the Middle Awash project
since 1981. The archaeological context of these deposits is presented in the 2000 Belgian
monograph entitled The Acheulean and the Plio-Pleistocene Deposits of the Middle Awash
Valley, Ethiopia, edited by J. Desmond Clark, Jean de Heinzelin, Kathy Schick, and
Henry Gilbert.
Of particular focus in the present volume is a very well-preserved Homo erectus
calvaria, BOU-VP-2/66. This is one of only a few hominid remains of this antiquity
from Africa. It is described and compared here in detail; analyzed metrically,
morphologically, and tomographically; and interpreted in an evolutionary context.
Hominid postcranial elements from the Daka Member, including three femora, are
also described and compared here.
The relatively few hominid fossils from the Daka Member are spatially and stratigraph-
ically associated with a fossil vertebrate fauna that is unique in its quality and abundance.
This rich and diverse assemblage provides data on paleoecology, evolutionary patterns,

xvi i
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