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Committee on Programs for Advanced Study of Mathematics and Science
in American High Schools

Jerry P. Gollub, Meryl W. Bertenthal,

Jay B. Labov, and Philip C. Curtis, Editors

Center for Education

Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education

National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS

Washington, DC
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS • 2101 Constitution Avenue N.W. • Washington, DC 20418

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of
the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National
Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The
members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences
and with regard for appropriate balance.

This study was conducted under an award from the National Science Foundation and the
United States Department of Education (Award # ESI-9817042). Any opinions, findings, conclu-
sions, or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the members of the committee
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Learning and understanding : improving advanced study of mathematics and

science in U.S. high schools / Committee on Programs for Advanced Study
of Mathematics and Science in American High Schools, Center for
Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education ;
Jerry P. Gollub ... [et al.], editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-07440-1
1. Mathematics--Study and teaching (Secondary)—United States. 2.
Science—Study and teaching (Secondary)—United States. 3. Advanced
placement programs (Education) I. Gollub, J. P., 1944- II. National
Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Programs for Advanced Study of
Mathematics and Science in American High Schools.
QA13 .L38 2002
507.1'073--dc21
2002006487

Additional copies of this report are available from

National Academy Press

2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Box 285
Washington, DC 20055
800/624-6242
202/334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan Area)
<http://www.nap.edu>

Copyright 2002 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Suggested citation:

National Research Council. (2002). Learning and understanding: Improving advanced study of
mathematics and science in U.S. high schools. Committee on Programs for Advanced Study of
Mathematics and Science in American High Schools. J.P. Gollub, M.W. Bertenthal, J.B. Labov,
and P.C. Curtis, Editors. Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society

of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated
to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare.
Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy
has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and
technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of
Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter
of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engi-
neers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members,
sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the
federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineer-
ing programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research,
and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president
of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of

Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the
examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts
under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congres-
sional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative,
to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is
president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sci-
ences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the
Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government.
Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the
Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of
Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the gov-
ernment, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is
administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M.
Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the
National Research Council.
 v

COMMITTEE ON PROGRAMS FOR

ADVANCED STUDY OF MATHEMATICS AND
SCIENCE IN AMERICAN HIGH SHOOLS
JERRY P. GOLLUB, Cochair, Department of Physics, Haverford College
PHILIP C. CURTIS, Jr., Cochair, Department of Mathematics, University of
California, Los Angeles
CAMILLA BENBOW, Peabody College of Education and Human
Development, Vanderbilt University
HILDA BORKO, School of Education, University of Colorado, Boulder
WANDA BUSSEY, Department of Mathematics, Rufus King High School,
Milwaukee, WI
GLENN A. CROSBY, Department of Chemistry, Washington State University
JOHN A. DOSSEY, Department of Mathematics (retired), Illinois State
University
DAVID ELY, Department of Biology, Champlain Valley Union High School,
Hinesburg, VT
DEBORAH HUGHES HALLETT, Department of Mathematics, University of
Arizona
JOHN K. HAYNES, Department of Biology, Morehouse College
VALERIE E. LEE, School of Education, University of Michigan
STEPHANIE PACE MARSHALL, President, Illinois Mathematics and Science
Academy
MICHAEL E. MARTINEZ,* Department of Education, University of
California, Irvine
PATSY W. MUELLER, Department of Chemistry, Highland Park High
School, IL and Regina Dominican High School, Wilmette, IL
JOSEPH NOVAK, Department of Education (Emeritus), Cornell University;
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, University of West Florida
JEANNIE OAKES, Graduate School of Information Studies, University of
California, Los Angeles
VERA C. RUBIN, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Foundation of Washington (through November 2, 2000)
ROBIN SPITAL, Science Department, The Bolles School, Jacksonville, FL
CONRAD L. STANITSKI, Department of Chemistry, University of Central
Arkansas
WILLIAM B. WOOD, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and
Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder

*Michael Martinez was an active member of the committee from its inception until August
1, 2001, when he began a position as program officer in the Directorate for Human Resources
at the National Science Foundation. National Research Council rules prevented Dr. Martinez
from contributing to the final preparation of the report after assuming this position.
vi LEARNING AND UNDERSTANDING

JAY B. LABOV, Study Director, Center for Education

MERYL W. BERTENTHAL, Senior Program Officer
JOHN SHEPHARD, Research Assistant
ANDREW E. TOMPKINS, Senior Project Assistant
ALEXANDRA BEATTY, Senior Program Officer (until November 1999)
RICHARD J. NOETH (until January 2000)
MARILEE SHELTON, Program Officer, Board on Life Sciences (until
November 2000)
 vii

MEMBERS OF THE
DISCIPLINARY CONTENT PANELS*
Biology
WILLIAM B. WOOD, Committee Liaison and Chair, Department of
Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of
Colorado, Boulder
ROBERT A. BLOODGOOD, Department of Cell Biology, University of
Virginia
MARY P. COLVARD, Department of Biology, Cobleskill-Richmond High
School, NY
PATRICK G. EHRMAN, Department of Molecular Biotechnology, University
of Washington
JOHN JUNGCK, Department of Biology, Beloit College
JAMES H. WANDERSEE, Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
Louisiana State University

Chemistry
CONRAD L. STANITSKI, Committee Liaison and Chair, Department of
Chemistry, University of Central Arkansas
ARTHUR B. ELLIS, Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin,
Madison
PATRICIA METZ, Department of Chemistry, United States Naval Academy
JOHN C. OLIVER, Department of Chemistry, Lindbergh High School, St.
Louis, MO
DAVID PYSNIK, Chemistry Department, Sydney High School, Sydney, NY
A. TRUMAN SCHWARTZ, Department of Chemistry, Macalester College
GLENDA M. TORRANCE, Chemistry Department, Montgomery Blair High
School, Silver Spring, MD

Physics
ROBIN SPITAL, Committee Liaison and Chair, Science Department, The
Bolles School, Jacksonville, FL
S. JAMES GATES, JR., Physics Department, University of Maryland,
College Park
DAVID M. HAMMER, Physics Department, University of Maryland,
College Park

*Biographical sketches for members of the four disciplinary content panels are included as
an appendix with each panel report.
viii LEARNING AND UNDERSTANDING

ROBERT C. HILBORN, Department of Physics, Amherst College

ERIC MAZUR, Department of Applied Physics, Harvard University
PENNY MOORE, College of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Ohio
State University
ROBERT A. MORSE, Physics Department, St. Albans School,
Washington, DC

Mathematics
DEBORAH HUGHES HALLETT, Committee Liaison and Chair, Department
of Mathematics, University of Arizona
HAROLD BOGER, Department of Mathematics, Crenshaw High School,
Los Angeles, CA
MARILYN P. CARLSON, Department of Mathematics, Arizona State
University
ROGER HOWE, Department of Mathematics, Yale University
DANIEL J. TEAGUE, Department of Mathematics, North Carolina School of
Science and Mathematics, Durham, NC
ALAN C. TUCKER, Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, State
University of New York, Stony Brook
 ix

Preface

The United States has compiled a remarkable record of excellence and

leadership in science, mathematics, and technology over the past half cen-
tury. Effective mathematics and science education at the advanced high school
level is critical if this record is to continue. In addition, quality science and
mathematics education is important in preparing students to succeed in higher
education and to be informed citizens.
This report is the product of a 2-year study of programs for advanced
science and mathematics education in U.S. high schools. Recent research on
learning and program design served as the basis for the analysis. This emerging
knowledge was used to evaluate the Advanced Placement (AP) and Interna-
tional Baccalaureate (IB) programs and to examine specific ways in which
these and other programs of advanced study can be made more effective
and more accessible to all students who might benefit from them.
The study committee comprised professional educators, teachers with
experience in the AP and IB programs, university scientists and mathemati-
cians, experts in learning and talent development, and authorities on access
and equity in education. Their diverse perspectives resulted in an interdisci-
plinary approach to the analysis and assessment of programs for advanced
study. We appreciate the cooperative efforts of the study committee to achieve
a balance among these different perspectives.
This study was particularly complex for several reasons. First, the com-
mittee was charged by the National Research Council (NRC) to consider
advanced study in depth in four disciplines: biology, chemistry, physics, and
mathematics (with an emphasis on calculus). The committee therefore con-
vened diverse panels of experts in each of these fields, and their extensive
reports form an important part of the study results, grounding the analysis in
the classroom practice of advanced study programs.1 A second source of
complexity in the study was the fact that the AP and IB programs must be

1
The four panel reports are available online as pdf files at www.nap.edu/catalog/10129.html.
x PREFACE

examined in the context of the entire system of education in the United

States. These programs have important effects on school curricula and staff-
ing starting in the middle-school years, and they also influence and are
shaped by trends in higher education. A third source of complexity was the
dilemma of how to deal with extensive disparities in access to advanced
study that have the effect of excluding many students, especially minorities
and residents of impoverished communities, while continuing to ensure that
traditionally advantaged students are served effectively.
All members of the committee contributed generously to the study, both
to discussions held during and between meetings, and, by providing draft
text or comments, to the process of preparing this report. Four committee
members also served as panel chairs, drafted the respective panel reports,
and responded to reviews: William Wood, biology panel; Conrad Stanitski,
chemistry panel; Robin Spital, physics panel; and Deborah Hughes Hallett,
mathematics panel. Their exceptional efforts contributed substantially to the
success of this project. We also acknowledge important scholarly work on
access and equity by Valerie Lee and Jeannie Oakes. In addition, we note
the central contributions of Camilla Benbow, Hilda Borko, John Dossey,
Stephanie Pace Marshall, Michael Martinez, and Joseph Novak, who as a
group developed the material presented in Chapters 6 and 7 and guided the
analyses of Chapters 8 and 9. We thank David Ely, Patsy Mueller, Robin
Spital, and Wanda Bussey, the members of the committee who are teachers
of the AP and IB programs, for helping the committee understand today’s
high school settings. Finally, we acknowledge Glenn Crosby’s contributions
to our discussions of teacher education and professional development.
The NRC’s Center for Education provided exceptional support for this
project. Project director Jay Labov and senior program officer Meryl Bertenthal
worked tirelessly to seek out the extensive information required by the study
committee and to help overcome obstacles to achieving consensus. They
also contributed substantially to the process of drafting this report and guid-
ing the panel reports successfully through the stringent NRC review process.
We appreciate as well the capable efforts of John Shephard and Andrew
Tompkins, our research and project assistants. Leslie Ann Pierce, an experi-
enced AP and IB teacher, served as consultant to the committee and contrib-
uted to the report. Program officer Marilee Shelton and consultant Billy
Goodman assisted in the early phases of the project.
We acknowledge the helpfulness of the staff of the AP and IB, who
provided the committee with extensive information. Their commitment to
the long-term improvement of these programs and their receptiveness to the
committee’s ideas were evident. Although this report constitutes a strong
critique in many respects, its recommendations should not be regarded ei-
ther as questioning the importance of these programs or as conflicting with
improvement efforts already in progress. The active collaboration of many
 PREFACE xi

different groups will be required to implement the recommendations of this

study.
This study is part of a major commitment by the NRC to use its expertise
in the service of science and mathematics education. The committee antici-
pates that the report will be useful to all those concerned with improving
educational quality and equity, including program developers, science and
mathematics teachers, university scientists, policymakers, school administra-
tors, and parents.

Jerry W. Gollub and Philip C. Curtis, Cochairs

 xiii

Acknowledgments

The committee and staff thank the many individuals and organizations
that gave generously of their time and expertise to help with this study.
First, we acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation
and the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and
Improvement. We particularly thank Janice Earle of the National Science
Foundation and Patricia Ross of the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement of the Department of Education for the support and encour-
agement they provided to this committee during the past 36 months.
We acknowledge the important contributions of the 22 individuals who,
as members of four disciplinary content panels, conducted in-depth analy-
ses of the Advanced Placement (AP) and International Baccalaureate (IB)
programs in mathematics, chemistry, biology, and physics. Our sincerest
thanks go to Robert A. Bloodgood, University of Virginia; Harold Boger,
Crenshaw High School, Los Angeles, California; Marilyn P. Carlson, Arizona
State University; Mary P. Colvard, Cobleskill-Richmond High School, NY;
Patrick G. Ehrman, University of Washington; Arthur B. Ellis, University of
Wisconsin, Madison; S. James Gates, Jr., University of Maryland, College
Park; David M. Hammer, University of Maryland, College Park; Robert C.
Hilborn, Amherst College; Roger Howe, Yale University; John Jungck, Beloit
College; Eric Mazur, Harvard University; Patricia Metz, United States Naval
Academy; Robert A. Morse, St. Albans School, Washington, DC; Penny Moore,
Ohio State University; John C. Oliver, Lindbergh High School, St. Louis, Mis-
souri; David Pysnik, Sydney High School, Sydney, New York; Truman
Schwartz, Macalester College; Daniel J. Teague, North Carolina School of
Science and Mathematics, Durham, North Carolina; Glenda M. Torrance,
Montgomery Blair High School, Silver Spring, Maryland; Alan C. Tucker,
State University of New York, Stony Brook; and James H. Wandersee, Loui-
siana State University.
We are grateful to Lee Jones, director of the AP program, and Paul
Campbell, associate director of the International Baccalaureate Organisation
xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

of North America (IBNA), for providing program materials and data through-
out the study. They attended several committee meetings and workshops as
invited guests, organized presentations to the committee, and answered on-
going questions about their respective programs. Their cooperation was critical
to our efforts.
When this study began, the IB program was less familiar than the AP
program to most committee members. We thank the many individuals who
provided the committee with in-depth information about the IB program.
David Roylance, IB coordinator, Jeb Stuart High School in Fairfax, Virginia,
presented an overview of the IB program model. The committee obtained
insight into the structure, organization, and goals of IB science and math-
ematics curricula, instructional models, assessment, and professional devel-
opment opportunities from Jonathan Knopp, Rufus King High School, Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin; Ken Fox, Smoky Hill High School, Aurora, Colorado;
Arden Zipp, State University of New York at Courtland; and IBNA associate
director Paul Campbell. We acknowledge as well the ongoing help received
from IBNA staff members George Pook, Roger Brown, Jeff Thompson, and
Helen Drennen.
Individually and collectively, members of the committee benefited from
discussions with experts in a variety of fields. We especially thank James
Pellegrino, University of Illinois at Chicago, and José Mestre, University of
Massachusetts at Amherst, who helped expand our understanding of the
relevance of research on human cognition to the design and evaluation of
advanced study programs. Their advice helped the committee conceptualize
the model presented in this report for the design and evaluation of advanced
study programs.
Results from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMMS) contributed to the motivation for this study. We wish to thank
Michael Martin, TIMSS international deputy study director, and Patrick
Gonzales, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Edu-
cation, for helping the committee understand the TIMMS results.
Many individuals aided the committee’s work by participating in a series
of information-gathering workshops that were held in conjunction with sev-
eral of the committee’s meetings. The following individuals participated in a
committee workshop addressing the design and development of AP pro-
grams and assessments in mathematics and science: Dr. John Smarrelli, chair,
AP Biology Committee, Loyola University, Chicago; Dr. Robert Cannon, chief
faculty consultant, AP Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;
Dr. Thomas P. Dick, chair, AP Calculus Committee, Oregon State University;
Dr. Larry Riddle, chief faculty consultant, AP Calculus, Agnes Scott College;
Dr. William H. Ingham, chair, AP Physics Committee, James Madison Univer-
sity; Patrick Polley, chief faculty consultant, AP Physics, Beloit College; Beth
Nichols, assessment specialist, Educational Testing Service; Chancey Jones,
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

assessment specialist, Educational Testing Service; Ann Marie Zolandz, as-

sessment specialist, Educational Testing Service; and Rick Morgan, measure-
ment statistician, Educational Testing Service. Howard Everson, The College
Board vice-president for Teaching and Learning, was also instrumental in
helping the committee understand the mission and goals of the AP program.
Bernard L. Madison, professor of mathematics, University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville, and a member of the College Board’s Commission on the Fu-
ture of the Advanced Placement Program, provided the committee with an
overview of the commission’s findings and recommendations.
Three individuals—Peter O’Donnell, president of the O’Donnell Foun-
dation in Dallas, Texas; Carolyn Bacon, executive director of the Founda-
tion; and Gregg Fleisher, president, Advanced Placement Strategies—spoke
with the committee about an innovative program that engages students,
teachers, and schools in an effort to increase the number of traditionally
underrepresented Texas students who take AP courses and succeed on AP
examinations.
We also acknowledge several consultants who contributed significantly
to the project. Carolyn Callahan, University of Virginia, helped the commit-
tee understand the roles of AP and IB in meeting the needs of gifted and
talented students. Karen Boeschenstein, Office of Undergraduate Admission
at the University of Virginia, assisted the committee in interpreting data that
was gathered through an informal survey of deans of admission (see Chap-
ters 2 and 10). Bert Green, The Johns Hopkins University, helped the com-
mittee with an independent evaluation and interpretation of the College
Board’s AP validity studies (see Chapter 10). Julie Heifetz, Moss Rehabilita-
tion Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, interviewed AP and IB students
from different schools.
Many individuals within the National Research Council (NRC) assisted
the committee. We are grateful for the support of Bruce Alberts, president of
the National Academy of Sciences, who took a particular interest in this
study and provided support and encouragement along the way. Alexandra
Beatty drafted the original proposal for the project, and Richard Noeth was
study director in the early months of the project. We thank Michael Feuer,
director of the Center for Education, for his support and encouragement,
and Kirsten Sampson Snyder, who shepherded the four panel reports and
the main committee report through the NRC review process, and Yvonne
Wise for processing the report through final production. Genie Grohman
gave valuable assistance in thinking about the organization of this report,
and Judy Koenig contributed to the assessment sections of the report. Rona
Briere capably edited the final version. Naomi Chudowsky, study director of
the Cognitive Foundations of Assessment Committee, shared with us early
drafts of her committee’s report and consulted with us about our conceptual
model for the design and evaluation of advanced study programs. Brenda
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Buchbinder managed the finances of the project, and Viola Horek, adminis-
trative officer for the Center for Education, provided important assistance.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with proce-
dures approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this
independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will
assist the institution in making the published report as sound as possible and
to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evi-
dence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and
draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the delibera-
tive process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participa-
tion in the review of this report:

Jo Boaler, Stanford University

Stephen B. Dunbar, University of Iowa
Martin L. Johnson, University of Maryland
Joel J. Mintzes, University of North Carolina at Wilmington
Carolyn J. Morse, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Harris Sokoloff, University of Pennsylvania
Patsy Wang-Iverson, Research for Better Schools
James A. Watts, Southern Regional Education Board

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive

comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions
or recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its
release. The review of this report was overseen by Royce W. Murray and
Melvin C. George. Appointed by the NRC, they were responsible for making
certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in
accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were
carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests
entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
In addition, the following individuals served as reviewers for the four
panel reports included as supporting documentation in this volume:

Biology:
Neil A. Campbell, University of California, Riverside
Warren Hunnicutt, St. Petersburg Junior College, FL
Charles Lytle, North Carolina State University
Randy McGonegal, Palm Harbor University High School, Palm Harbor, FL
Duncan MacQuarrie, Tacoma Public Schools, Tacoma, Washington
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii

Chemistry:
William R. Robinson, Purdue University
Keith Sheppard, Columbia University
Myra Thayer, Fairfax County Public Schools, Virginia
David Thissen, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Physics:
Susan A. Agruso, Charlotte-Mecklenburg School District, North Carolina
Arthur Eisenkraft, Foxlane High School, Bedford, NY
Mark Headlee, United World College, Montezuma, NM
William H. Ingham, James Madison University
Kris Whelan, Plano Independent School District, Plano, TX

Mathematics:
John R. Brunsting, Hinsdale Central High School, Hinsdale, IL
Miriam Clifford, Caroll College, Waukesha, WI
Renee Fish, Palm Harbor University High School, Palm Harbor, FL
Michael J. Kolen, University of Iowa
Thomas W. Tucker, Colgate University

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive

comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions
or recommendations of the panel reports, nor did they see the final drafts of
the reports before their release. The review of these reports was overseen by
Philip C. Curtis. Appointed by the NRC, he was responsible for making
certain that an independent examination of these reports was carried out in
accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were
carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of these reports
rests entirely with the authoring panels and the institution.
As a final note, we would like to acknowledge that when copyright
permissions were being sought from various sources, the IBO pointed out
several inaccuracies in our listing of their programs. Since this report was
already in the final stages of printing when these errors were noted, we
correct them here for the entire report and extend our apologies to the IBO:
The “program guides” to which we refer throughout the main report as well
as the content panel reports should instead be labeled as “subject guides” in
specific disciplines (e.g., Chemistry guide). The IB Diploma Programme is
one of three academic programs. The IBO is now using the U.S. spelling of
“Organization” as part of its official name rather than “Organisation” that is
presented throughout this report. Finally, it also should be noted that per-
mission to reprint AP materials does not constitute review or endorsement
by the Educational Testing Service or the College Board of this publication
as a whole or of any questions or testing information it may contain.
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