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REFORM AND TRANSITION
IN THE MEDITERRANEAN
Series Editor: Ioannis N. Grigoriadis

THE ARAB
UPRISINGS IN EGYPT,
JORDAN AND TUNISIA
Social, Political and
Economic Transformations

Andrea Teti,
Pamela Abbott and
Francesco Cavatorta
Reform and Transition in the Mediterranean

Series editor
Ioannis N. Grigoriadis
Bilkent University
Ankara, Turkey
The series of political and economic crises that befell many countries in the
Mediterranean region starting in 2009 has raised emphatically questions
of reform and transition. While the sovereign debt crisis of Southern
European states and the “Arab Spring” appear prima facie unrelated, some
common roots can be identified: low levels of social capital and trust, high
incidence of corruption, and poor institutional performance. This series
provides a venue for the comparative study of reform and transition in the
Mediterranean within and across the political, cultural, and religious
boundaries that crisscross the region. Defining the Mediterranean as the
region that encompasses the countries of Southern Europe, the Levant,
and North Africa, the series contributes to a better understanding of the
agents and the structures that have brought reform and transition to the
forefront. It invites (but is not limited to) interdisciplinary approaches that
draw on political science, history, sociology, economics, anthropology,
area studies, and cultural studies. Bringing together case studies of indi-
vidual countries with broader comparative analyses, the series provides a
home for timely and cutting-edge scholarship that addresses the structural
requirements of reform and transition; the interrelations between politics,
history and culture; and the strategic importance of the Mediterranean for
the EU, the USA, Russia, and emerging powers.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/series/14513
 Andrea Teti • Pamela Abbott
Francesco Cavatorta

The Arab Uprisings in

Egypt, Jordan and
Tunisia
Social, Political and Economic Transformations
Andrea Teti Pamela Abbott
University of Aberdeen University of Aberdeen
Aberdeen, United Kingdom Aberdeen, United Kingdom

Francesco Cavatorta
Laval University
Québec, Québec, Canada

Reform and Transition in the Mediterranean

ISBN 978-3-319-69043-8    ISBN 978-3-319-69044-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69044-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017956116

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Pattern adapted from an Indian cotton print produced in the 19th century

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword

This valuable study adds a critical dimension usually missing from analyses
of the varying trajectories of the Arab Uprising, namely how citizen atti-
tudes help explain the Uprising, how variations in them matter for regime
trajectories, and how outcomes have, in turn, altered mass attitudes. The
study is based on surveys in Tunisia, Egypt and Jordan administered in
four years—2011 and 2013–2015—combined with a wealth of informa-
tion from pre-existing data bases, permitting the authors to make system-
atic comparisons across countries and time.
The work makes several important contributions to our understandings
of the Uprisings. First, the findings challenge the conventional narrative
that the Uprisings were essentially about democracy: if that had been the
overwhelming demand of the mobilised masses, why has been so little
democratisation? Did the agency of the people not matter compared to
elite interests and external constraints? The book’s findings help us get
beyond this dilemma, demonstrating that the main demand of the protes-
tors was not for purely procedural liberal democracy (competitive elec-
tions, political rights) and that majorities wanted, rather, substantive
democracy—socio-economic rights. Moreover, substantial numbers believed
their country was not ready for democracy or preferred an Islamist regime
or, when a trade-off between democracy and order was perceived, chose
order.
For protestors, the priorities were lack of economic opportunity and
unacceptable levels of corruption, and the protests against regimes were
for breaking the populist social contract under the widespread turn to
neo-liberalism and crony capitalism in the region. The study confirms the

v
vi FOREWORD

widespread impression that the activists driving regime change tended to

be educated youth but also that supporters were more likely to be those
with inadequate income (but not the very poorest) - that is, those who
had probably suffered the most from regimes’ policies and were most con-
scious of them.
The study also provides evidence on how citizen attitudes matter for
outcomes. First, variations in attitudes can be directly linked to differences
in regime trajectories: thus, opposition to the regime was overwhelming
in Tunisia and in Egypt, where presidents were overthrown, but not in
Jordan, were there was no regime change. In Tunisia alone was there high
support for political democracy: it is no accident that only in Tunisia was
there a successful democratic transition.
Second, while in the immediate aftermath of the Uprisings there were
high expectations of positive change, by 2014 disillusionment had set in as
governments continued with neo-liberal policies. A multitude of attitudi-
nal changes indicate political de-mobilisation: in 2014, only minorities
thought the Uprising had been positive for their country and most thought
the economic and security situation had deteriorated significantly com-
pared to 2009. Perceptions of economic decline were worse than objective
indicators showed. In parallel, expectations had drastically declined: peo-
ple now believed reform had to come gradually, not via further revolution.
Security had become a much more salient concern, to the point where the
formerly hated police were now valued, and regimes in Jordan and Egypt
enjoyed support for sparing their countries the violent chaos that had
enveloped neighbouring countries. These changes in attitudes much
reduced pressure on elites to deliver political reform and even re-­legitimised
authoritarian governance. Third, attitudes suggest Tunisia’s democratic
transition is in jeopardy. Its government, although the most democratic,
was not highly rated by citizens; political rights might have improved but
substantive democracy—social rights—had not, while Tunisia now faced a
terrorist threat non-existent before the Uprising.
This study offers a fascinating insight into why the Arab Uprising did
not become a democratic revolution.

International Relations and Middle East Politics Ray Hinnebusch

University of St Andrews,
St Andrews, Scotland
 Preface

This book analyses political, economic and social changes in Egypt, Jordan
and Tunisia since the 2010–2011 Uprisings against the backdrop of pre-­
Uprisings trajectories by integrating survey and non-survey data, both
quantitative and qualitative. In doing so, it shows that there is a need to
reflect on the conception of democracy at the heart of academic analysis
and to take seriously the challenge that collective preferences provide clues
to help address the limitations of existing analytical and policy toolkits. It
is necessary to reconsider the significance of socio-economic rights—as
well as juridical equality in civil and political rights—as non-negotiable
dimensions of a democratic society and of transitions towards it, but also
to re-evaluate the stability of authoritarian regimes in the region.

Acknowledgements
The Arab Transformations Project, Political and Social Transformations in
the Arab World, was funded under the European Commission’s FP7
Framework Grant agreement no: 320214. The Project was coordinated
by the University of Aberdeen (UK) and included: Dublin City University
(DCU), Dublin, Ireland; Análisis Sociológicos Económicos y Políticos
(ASEP), Madrid, Spain; Istituto per gli Studi di Politica Internazionale
(ISPI), Milan, Italy; Universität Graz (UNI GRAZ), Graz, Austria;
Societatea Pentru Methodologia Sondajelor Concluzia-Prim (Concluzia),
Chisinau, Moldova; Centre de Recherche en Économie Appliquée pour le
Développement (CREAD), Algiers, Algeria; Egyptian Centre for Public
Opinion Research (BASEERA), Cairo, Egypt; Independent Institute for

vii
viii PREFACE

Administration and Civil Society Studies (IIACSS), Amman, Jordan;

University of Jordan (JU), Amman, Jordan; MEDA Solutions (MEDAS),
Casablanca, Morocco; Association Forum Des Sciences Sociales Appliquées
(ASSF), Tunis, Tunisia.

Disclaimer
The authors alone remain responsible for the content of this book. It can-
not be taken as necessarily representing the views of the EU, the Court of
the University of Aberdeen or any of the project partners.

Aberdeen, UK Andrea Teti

 Contents

1 Introduction and Background   1

2 Understanding the Context: Hopes and Challenges

in 2011  27

3 Political Challenges: Expectations and Changes 2011–2014  55

4 Unmet Challenges and Frustrated Expectations: Economic

Security and Quality of Life 2011–2014  81

5 Employment Creation, Corruption and Gender Equality

2011–2014 103

6 Conclusions: Resilient Authoritarianism and Frustrated

Expectations 123

Index 141

ix
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 Acronyms and Abbreviations

AB Arab Barometer
ADI Arab Democracy Index
AfB AfroBarometer
ATS Arab Transformations Survey
BTI Bertelsmann Transformation Index
CSOs Civil Society Organisations
FSI Fragile State Index
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GGI Gender Gap Index
HDI Human Development Index
IFIs International Financial Institutions
NEET Not in Employment Education or Training
NGOs Non-governmental Organisations
UN United Nations
WDIs World Development Indicators
WGIs Worldwide Governance Indicators
WGP World Gallup Poll

xi
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Percentage mentioning economic factors, corruption and/or

political rights as one of the two main reasons that sparked the
Uprisings42
Fig. 2.2 Main challenges facing the country in 2011 (%) 44
Fig. 3.1 The separation of religion and socio-political life (% disagreeing
with religious influence), 2011 and 2014 74
Fig. 4.1 MENA economic growth index: present economic performance
and future enabling conditions (scores out of 100) 89
Fig. 4.2 Concerns about security in 2014 (%) 94
Fig. 4.3 Economic situation of household and country good or very
good in 2009 and 2014 (%) 98
Fig. 5.1 Percentage who say they are satisfied or very satisfied with
government performance in 2014 109

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Taxonomies and approaches to transformations 21

Table 2.1 Support for and participation in the uprisings by category, age
18 and over in 2011, % 37
Table 2.2 Confident that the 2011 Uprisings will succeed in achieving
political and economic transformation, % 50
Table 3.1 Agree that political and civil rights are guaranteed in 2011 and
2013, % 63
Table 3.2 Negative effects of democracy, % 69
Table 3.3 ‘Type of political regime suitable/very suitable for my
country’ in 2011 and 2014, % 69
Table 3.4 Two most important characteristics of democracy 71
Table 4.1 Major challenges facing country in 2011 and 2014, %
nominating as one of two 91
Table 5.1 Trust in institutions in 2011 and 2014: political, legal,
religious, civil society and the media, % 107
Table 5.2 Agreeing/strongly greeting on propositions relating to gender
equality in 2014, % 118

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction and Background

Abstract The Arab Uprisings were events of rare intensity in Middle

Eastern history as mass, popular and largely non-violent revolts which
threatened and toppled supposedly stable autocracies. Branded them the
region’s ‘1989 moment’, when counter-revolution followed revolution,
artificial expectations gave way to equally misplaced disaffection, still fails
to recognise the Uprisings’ originality and diversity. Focusing on three
cases epitomising different post-Uprising trajectories—Tunisia, Jordan and
Egypt—this chapter explores how the Uprisings have been analysed.
Explanations for the Uprisings fall into three categories, over-emphasising
in turn chances for democratisation, cultural or material obstacles to
democracy, or the stability of ‘hybrid regimes’. The chapter contextualises
events leading to the Uprisings in each country and examines strengths and
weaknesses of the toolkit through which the Uprisings have been viewed.

Keywords Arab Uprisings • Modernisation • Political transformation •

Democratisation • Authoritarianism • Authoritarian resilience

© The Author(s) 2018 1

A. Teti et al., The Arab Uprisings in Egypt, Jordan and Tunisia,
Reform and Transition in the Mediterranean,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69044-5_1
2 A. TETI ET AL.

1.1   Introduction
The Arab Uprisings represented a series of events of rare intensity in the
history of the Middle East, as mass, popular and largely non-violent revolts
took place, starting in December 2010 in Tunisia and reverberating
throughout the region. These protests threatened—and in four cases
resulted in the overthrow of—apparently stable autocratic regimes. The
nature and the extensive domestic, regional and international impact of
the Uprisings merit attention in and of themselves, but coming hard on
the heels of a global financial crisis and given the resonance of the Arab
Uprisings with protest movements beyond the region they appear all the
more significant. The relevance of the Uprisings is not just academic: the
Middle East is one of the most frequently conflictual regions in the world;
it is central to the global political economy as a source of hydrocarbons
and a global logistical nexus; it is a source of and transit point for migra-
tory flows towards Europe; and many of its autocracies have been sup-
ported as key allies by Western governments.
The Arab Uprisings in 2010/11 caught people, governments and many
academics by surprise (Gause 2011). Participants and observers both
within the region and beyond were surprised at the apparent ease with
which mass mobilisation wrong-footed supposedly resilient authoritarian
regimes, galvanising protesters, dismaying regime supporters, and leaving
Western governments’ policies in disarray. In Western capitals and media,
great hopes of swift democratisation were pinned on the Arab Uprisings
and they were quickly branded the Middle Eastern equivalent to the fall of
the Berlin Wall and the domino-like collapse of Soviet bloc dictatorships
in 1989 (Kaldor 2011). However, few significant democratic transforma-
tions have taken place, with only Tunisia formally qualifying as a democ-
racy by 2017 and substantive progress towards democracy often shaky
even there. Other countries in which Uprisings took place have experi-
enced the survival of authoritarian rule through repression (e.g. Bahrain),
counter-revolution (Egypt), civil war and the collapse of state structures
(Libya, Syria), or processes of reform and ‘façade democratisation’
(Morocco, Jordan) designed to maintain the substance of authoritarian
regimes untouched (Malmvig 2014). Both change and continuity have
characterised the post-Uprisings period (Hinnebusch ed. 2015; Rivetti
and Di Peri 2015), and in this book we outline and discuss what public
opinion survey data can tell us about the ways in which ordinary Arab citi-
zens perceive the socio-economic and political changes or lack thereof in
 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 3

the wake of the Uprisings. We do so by looking at three cases that are

generally taken as epitomising the different trajectories of post-Uprising
countries—Tunisia, Jordan and Egypt—and for which relatively more
information is available.
In Jordan, protesters demonstrated for changes in governance but not
for the toppling of the king and there was no regime change. King
Abdullah II responded to protests with political and economic conces-
sions, but these left the political system substantively unchanged. In the
Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions between December 2010 and February
2011, relatively peaceful demonstrations led to the overthrow of authori-
tarian regimes and embryonic moves towards democracy. It should be
emphasised that although regime collapse was more pronounced in
Tunisia than in Egypt—where the armed forces took power—large parts
of the regime remained intact (Anderson 2011). While reforms are ongo-
ing in Tunisia (Marzouki 2015) and democracy remains a possibility in
principle, in Egypt ruling elites struggled against each other but resisted
any substantive change: the first freely elected post-Mubarak executive and
legislature ignored popular demands and were overthrown by a military
coup in 2013, with a new constitution agreed and a former army chief,
Abdul Fattah El-Sisi, elected President in 2014. While Islamist parties
were elected to power after the first post-Uprisings election in Tunisia and
Egypt, in Egypt the Muslim Brotherhood ruled thanks to support from
the Salafist Nour alliance, while in Tunisia the more moderate Ennahda
party agreed to resign in favour of a national unity government in 2013
following mass demonstrations. Their experience in power had been con-
troversial due to their own failures and to the polarised environment
within which they operated.
In Tunisia, the rise of Salafism (Marks 2013) soon after the revolution
endangered the transition because Salafists wanted the implementation of
an ultra-conservative version of Islamic law, which forced Ennahda to dis-
tance itself from them. There were also protests in 2012 against moves by
the ‘Troika’, the Islamist-led government, to revise women’s rights in the
proposed new constitution. All this polarised Tunisian society, with large
sectors of the population holding on to the secular heritage of the previous
regime. Ultimately, Ennahda resigned and a technocratic government
replaced the ‘Troika’, leading to the consensual adoption of a new consti-
tution. The successful 2014 legislative and presidential elections placed
the country on the path of democratic consolidation. In Egypt, the Muslim
Brotherhood’s Mohammed Morsi was elected President in June 2012
4 A. TETI ET AL.

with a paper-thin majority, but by December a Brotherhood-Salafi alliance

in Parliament and in the Constitutional Assembly alienated non-Islamist
forces by driving through a new Constitution giving a significant role to
Islam, restricting freedom of speech, association and protest, and granting
significant concessions to an already powerful military. Although the new
Constitution was easily approved in a referendum, the Brotherhood-Salafi
alliance—content to ignore non-Islamists forces while cuddling up to the
military—was met with increasingly forceful opposition on the streets.
Popular demonstrations grew into widespread protest in June 2013, of
which the army took advantage to overthrow Morsi and impose military
rule. In December 2013 the Brotherhood was declared a terrorist group,
and in January 2015 the new Constitution banned religious political
parties.
Explanations for the Uprisings abound in the literature, including com-
parative work examining larger regional trends and individual case studies
where events and developments are examined in great detail. While all
these works focus on both structural factors and agency by identifying the
crucial actors involved in the Uprisings and their aftermath, there is very
little understanding of how the socio-economic and political transforma-
tions which the Uprisings generated—or lack thereof—influenced ordi-
nary citizens. This book focuses on two broad areas which responses to
public opinion surveys have identified as of central concern for the popula-
tions of countries in the Arab world: socio-economic cohesion/disloca-
tion and political voice/exclusion. Our findings suggest that these issues,
which drove people to demonstrate in 2010/11, are far from being
resolved and that populations continue to have little confidence in their
governments in general and in their ability to deliver on concrete issues
that matter to people, whether in the social, economic or political sphere.
On the contrary, people’s expectations have largely been ignored or have
gone unfulfilled on a range of issues from social security to still-endemic
unemployment; trust in governments has declined drastically; the econ-
omy remains the single largest challenge (and cause of migration); corrup-
tion remains pervasive, political reforms have been either cosmetic or
reversed (or, in Tunisia’s case, they remain shaky) and people have little
faith that things will change. Neither national governments nor their
international counterparts have been able or willing to address this poten-
tially toxic mix of factors. Indeed, international financial institutions (IFIs)
and Western governments (Hanieh 2015) quickly recast the Uprisings as
a struggle merely for formal democracy and the overthrow of autocracy,
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Lesson 4: Historical development and evolution
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 33: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 35: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 37: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 5: Literature review and discussion
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 41: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 42: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 43: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 6: Literature review and discussion
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 51: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 52: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 57: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 7: Literature review and discussion
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 61: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 66: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 67: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 8: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 70: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 75: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 9: Fundamental concepts and principles
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 81: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 86: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 87: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 87: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 10: Current trends and future directions
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 92: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 94: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 98: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 11: Experimental procedures and results
Practice Problem 100: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 101: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 102: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 104: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 108: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 109: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Summary 12: Ethical considerations and implications
Practice Problem 110: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 111: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 112: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 116: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 13: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 122: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 128: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 129: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 14: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Example 130: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 131: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 133: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 134: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 138: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 15: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 140: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 141: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 141: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 147: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 148: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 148: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 149: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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