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 Kant
‘Kant is an absolutely first-rate general introduction to Kant’s Critical
Philosophy. Paul Guyer’s interpretations are extremely well-supported,
carefully and crisply argued, and highly insightful.’
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‘An impressive overview of the various strands of Kant’s philosophy. With

great skill Guyer manages to compress Kant’s critical thought into a few
hundred pages. This book will provide an excellent introduction to Kant’s
thought.’
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‘The book is impressive in very many ways. It demonstrates a mastery of

the Kantian corpus and an ability to explain exceedingly complex argu-
ments in a clear and accessible fashion. I think it will become essential
reading for students wanting to grasp the broad sweep of Kant’s thought
without losing much by way of depth.’
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‘That Guyer is able to cover this much material, clearly and without over-
simplification, in a single, reasonably sized volume represents a unique
accomplishment, which should prove to be extremely useful to a broad
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Routledge Philosophers

Edited by Brian Leiter

University of Texas, Austin

Routledge Philosophers is a major series of introductions to the great Western

philosophers. Each book places a major philosopher or thinker in historical
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An ideal starting point for those new to philosophy, they are also essential
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Hobbes A P Martinich
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Kant Paul Guyer

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Paul Guyer

Kant
First published 2006
by Routledge
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Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
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© 2006 Paul Guyer

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Guyer, Paul, 1948-
Kant / Paul Guyer.
p. cm. -- (Routledge philosophers)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0–415–28335–3 (hardback : alk. paper) -- ISBN 0–415–28336–1
(pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Kant, Immanuel, 1724–1804. I.Title. II. Series.
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 Acknowledgements viii
Abbreviations ix
Chronology xi

Introduction 1
Nature and Freedom 1
Skepticism and Critique 8

A Life in Work One 15

Childhood and Student Years 16
Return to the University 18
Toward the Critical Philosophy 21
The Critical Philosophy 32
Final Works 37
Further Reading 41

Part One
Nature 43
Kant’s Copernican Revolution Two 45
Introduction 45
Space and Time: The Pure Forms of Sensible Intuition 51
The Contributions of the Understanding 70
The Metaphysical Deduction 72
The Transcendental Deduction 80
The Principles of Empirical Judgment 95
The Refutation of Idealism 116
Further Reading 123

The Critique of Metaphysics Three 126

The Ideas of Pure Reason 129
The Metaphysics of the Self 134
The Metaphysics of the World 138
The Metaphysics of God 145
Further Reading 153
vi Contents

Building upon the Foundations of Knowledge Four 155

The Systematic Science of Body 157
The Systematicity of Cognition in General 165
Further Reading 173

Part Two
Freedom 175

Laws of Freedom: The Foundations of Kant’s Moral

Philosophy Five 177
The Derivation of the Categorical Imperative 179
Universal Law and Humanity as an End in Itself 191
Confirmation of the Categorical Imperative from Commonly
Recognized Duties 196
Autonomy and the Realm of Ends 203
Further Reading 207

Freedom, Immortality, and God: The Presuppositions

of Morality Six 210
The Moral Law and Freedom of the Will 213
Immortality and the Existence of God 230
Further Reading 238

Kant’s System of Duties I: The Duties of Virtue

Seven 239
Kant’s Division of Duties 239
The General Obligation of Virtue 247
The Specific Duties of Virtue 249
Further Reading 261

Kant’s System of Duties II: Duties of Right Eight 262

The Universal Principle of Right, Coercion, and Innate Right 262
The Right to Property 268
Political Rights and Obligations 279
Rebellion and Reform 284
Toward Perpetual Peace 294
Further Reading 302
 Contents vii

Part Three
Nature and Freedom 305
The Beautiful, the Sublime, and the Morally Good
Nine 307
Bridging the Gulf 307
Varieties of Aesthetic Judgment 312
Aesthetics and Morality 324
Further Reading 332

Freedom and Nature: Kant’s Revision of

Traditional Teleology Ten 335
The Rejection of Traditional Teleology 335
From Organisms to Nature as a Whole 339
Freedom, Happiness, and the End of Nature 349
Further Reading 358

A History of Freedom? Eleven 360

Further Reading 371

Glossary 373
Notes 380
Select Bibliography 413
Index 426
Acknowledgements

This book is the distillation of a lifetime’s study of Kant, and it would be impos-
sible to thank every teacher and colleague from whom I have gained insight into
Kant over four decades. I would like to thank Stanley Cavell, who not only super-
vised my early work on Kant but has also urged me to write a book like the
present one for many years. I would like to thank the members of my family – my
wife, Pamela Foa, my daughter, Nora, my father, Irving, and my siblings Mark,
Daniel, and Léonie – who have likewise urged me to write a book like this for
some time. I would especially like to thank Frederick Rauscher, who read the
entire manuscript carefully and made innumerable helpful suggestions, for which
the final product is much better than it would otherwise have been. Michael Rohlf
and Steven Jauss also read much of the manuscript and made useful suggestions.
My colleague Gary Hatfield suggested several important improvements in my
treatment of Kant’s philosophy of science in Chapter 4. And several of the anony-
mous readers of the manuscript for Routledge made helpful suggestions. I thank
Brian Leiter for the invitation to write the book, and my editor at Routledge, Tony
Bruce, for his enthusiasm and helpful suggestions. I am especially grateful to
Julian Wuerth, who took valuable time away from his own work to help me with
proofreading.
Excerpts from Critique of the Power of Judgment by Immanuel Kant, edited and
translated by Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews, 2000 © Cambridge University Press.
Reprinted with kind permission of the publisher and editors.
Excerpts from Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant, edited and translated
by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood, 1998 © Cambridge University Press. Reprinted
with kind permission of the publisher and editors.
Excerpts from Practical Philosophy by Immanuel Kant, edited by Mary J Gregor,
1996 © Cambridge University Press. Reprinted with kind permission of the
publisher.
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 Abbreviations

Citations to Kant’s texts are given parenthetically. Citations from the Critique
of Pure Reason are located by reference to the pagination of Kant’s first (“A”)
and/or second (“B”) editions. All other passages from Kant’s works are
cited by the volume and page number, given by arabic numerals separated
by a colon, in the standard edition of Kant’s works, Kant’s gesammelte Schriften,
edited by the Royal Prussian, later German, then Berlin-Brandenburg
Academy of Sciences, 29 volumes (volume 26 not yet published) (Berlin:
Georg Reimer, later Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1900–). Where Kant divided
a work into numbered sections, his section number typically precedes the
volume and page number. These references are preceded by abbreviations
from the following list, except where the context makes that unnecessary.
Unless otherwise indicated in the individual essays, all translations are
from the Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, edited by Paul Guyer
and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992–).

CB “On the Conjectural Beginning of Human History” (1786)

CF Conflict of the Faculties (1798)
Corr Kant’s correspondence, in volumes 10-13 of the Academy
edition or in Zweig (see Bibliography)
CPJ Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790)
CPracR Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
CPuR Critique of Pure Reason (1781 and 1787)
DDS “Concerning the Ultimate Ground of the Differentiation of Directions in
Space” (1768)
DSS Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, Elucidated by Dreams of Metaphysics (1766)
FI First Introduction to the Critique of the Power of Judgment (post-
humous)
x Abbreviations

G Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

ID Inaugural dissertation, On the Forms and Principles of the Sensible and
Intellectual Worlds (1770)
LEC Lectures on Ethics, Moral Philosophy Collins (dated 1784-85, but
based on lectures from several years earlier)
LF On the True Estimation of Living Forces (1747)
Logic Immanuel Kant’s Logic: A Handbook for Lectures, edited by G.B. Jäsche
(1800)
MFNS Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786)
MM Metaphysics of Morals (1797)
MMV Lectures on Ethics, Metaphysics of Morals Vigilantius (1793-94)
NE A New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition (1755)
NF Notes and Fragments
NFey Naturrecht Feyerabend (1784-85)
NQ “Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Quantities into
Philosophy” (1763)
OFBS Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime (1764)
OP Opus postumum (1797-1803)
OPB The Only Possible Basis for a Demonstration of the Existence of God (1763)
OT “What Does it Mean to Orient Oneself in Thought?” (1786)
PFM Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics that will be able to come forth as a Science
(1783)
PM The Employment in Natural Philosophy of Metaphysics combined with Geometry,
of which Sample I Contains the Physical Monadology (1756)
PNTM Inquiry concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and
Morals (1764)
PP Toward Perpetual Peace (1795)
RP What is the Real Progress that Metaphysics has made in Germany
since the Time of Leibniz and Wolff, edited by F.T. Rink (1804)
R Reflexionen (Kant’s notes and marginalia in volumes 14-20 and 23
of the Academy edition)
RBMR Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (1793)
TP “On the old saying: That may be correct in theory but is
of no use in practice” (1793)
UH “Idea towards a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point
of View” (1784)
UNH Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755)
WE? “Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?” (1784)
 Chronology

1724 Kant born on April 22 in Königsberg, Prussia

1730-32 Attends elementary school at Vorstädter Hospitalschule
1732-40 Attends the Pietist Collegium Fredericianum
1740-46 Attends the Albertina, the university at Königsberg; left without
degree
1748-54 Employed as private tutor by families in Judtschen, Arnsdorf,
and Rautenberg
1749 Publishes True Estimation of Living Forces
1754 Return to Königsberg; publishes “Whether the Earth Has
Changed in its Revolutions” and “Whether the Earth is Aging
from a Physical Point of View”
1755 Receives M.A. for “On Fire”; earns right to lecture as Privatdozent
with A New Exposition of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition and
begins lecturing; publishes General Natural History and Theory of the
Heavens
1756 Publishes doctoral dissertation on Physical Monadology; three essays
on Lisbon earthquake and essay on the theory of winds
1757 Announces lectures on physical geography
1758 Publishes “New Doctrine of Motion and Rest”
1759 Publishes “Essay on Optimism”
1762 Publishes “The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figure”
1763 Publishes Only Possible Basis for a Demonstration of the Existence of God
and “Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative
Magnitudes into Philosophy”
1764 Declines professorship of poetry; publishes Observations on the
Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Inquiry concerning the istinness
xii Chronology

of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality, second-prize essay

in Berlin Academy competition
1766 Adds position as sublibrarian at the castle and university
library; publishes Dreams of a Spirit-Seer Elucidated by Dreams
of Metaphysics
1768 Publishes “On Ultimate Ground of the Differentiation of
Directions in Space”
1769 Declines offer of professorship at Erlangen
1770 Declines offer from Jena; appointed Professor of Logic and
Metaphysics at Königsberg; defends and publishes inaugural
dissertation On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible
World
1772 February letter to Marcus Herz outlines project of a critique
of pure reason; begins anthropology lectures; gives up posi-
tion as sublibrarian
1775 Essay “On the Different Human Races” as announcement for
anthropology lectures
1776 Essay on the educational philosophy of the Dessau Philanthropinum
1778 Declines professorship in Halle
1781 Critique of Pure Reason published in May
1782 First, negative review of Critique appears
1783 Responds in Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics
1784 Essays on “The Idea for a Universal History from a
Cosmopolitan Point of View?” and “What is Enlightenment?”
1785 Publishes Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, review of
Herder’s Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind and essays
on “Volcanoes on the Moon,” “The Wrongful Publication of
Books,” and “The Definition of the Concept of a Human Race”
1786 Publishes Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, essays on
“Conjectural Beginnings of the Human Race” and “What
Does Orientation in Thinking Mean?”; serves for the first
time as rector of the university and becomes external
member of the Berlin Academy of the Sciences
1787 Second edition of Critique of Pure Reason
1788 Publishes Critique of Practical Reason and “On the Use of
Teleological Principles in Philosophy,” which continues
debate on race
1790 Publishes Critique of the Power of Judgment and defense of his
philosophy from polemic by J.A. Eberhard, “On a discovery
 Chronology xiii

that is to make all new critique of pure reason dispensable

because on an older one”
1791 Publishes “On the Failure of All Attempts at a Theodicy”
1792 Publishes essay that will become Part I of Religion within the
Boundaries of mere Reason
1793 Publishes whole Religion within the Boundaries of mere Reason, essay
“On the Old Saying: That may be correct in theory but it is of
no use in practice”
1794 Prohibited from publishing further on religion; elected to
Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg
1795 Publisher Toward Perpetual Peace
1796 Publishes “On a newly elevated tone in philosophy”; gives
final lecture on July 23
1797 Publishes Metaphysics of Morals and “On a presumed right to lie
from philanthropic motives”
1798 Publishes The Conflict of the Faculties and Anthropology from a Practical
Point of View
1800 Publication of Kant’s Logic, edited by B.G. Jäsche
1802 Publication of Kant’s Physical Geography, edited by F.T. Rink.
1803 Publication of Kant’s Pedagogy, edited by Rink.
1804 Dies on February 12; publication of What Real Progress has
Metaphysics made in Germany since the Time of Leibniz and Wolff?, edited
by Rink
 Introduction

NATURE AND FREEDOM

Perhaps the most famous words that Immanuel Kant wrote during a
publishing career of more than fifty years are these from the conclusion to
his 1788 work on the foundation and possibility of morality, the Critique of
Practical Reason:

Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and rever-
ence, the more often and more steadily one reflects on them: the starry
heavens above me and the moral law within me. I do not need to
search for them and merely conjecture them as though they were veiled in
obscurity or in the transcendent region beyond my horizon; I see them
before me and connect them immediately with the consciousness of my
existence. The first begins from the place I occupy in the external world of
sense and extends the connection in which I stand into an unbounded
magnitude with worlds upon worlds and systems of systems, and moreover
into the unbounded times of their periodic motion, their beginning and their
duration. The second begins from my invisible self, my personality, and
presents me in a world which has true infinity but which can be discovered
only by the understanding, and I cognize that my connection with that
world (and thereby with all those visible worlds as well) is not merely
contingent, as in the first case, but universal and necessary. The first view
of a countless multitude of worlds annihilates, as it were, my importance
as an animal creature, which after it has been for a short time provided
with vital force (one knows not how) must give back to the planet (a mere
speck in the universe) the matter from which it came. The second, on the
contrary, raises my worth as an intelligence infinitely through my personality,
2 Kant

in which the moral law reveals to me a life independent of animality and

even of the whole sensible world, at least so far as this may be inferred
from the purposive determination of my existence by this law...
(CPracR, 5:161–2)

With these dramatic words, Kant alludes to the two great problems and
accomplishments of his philosophical career. On the one hand, he wants
to know how we who as creatures are a mere part of nature can discover
how all of nature, even those parts of it that are well beyond our physical
reach, does and even must work: how is it that we can become certain of
the fundamental principles of everyday experience and natural science and
by their means gain ever increasing knowledge of the natural order? On
the other hand, he wants to display the unconditional value that we have
as rational rather than merely natural beings, to show that the fundamental
principle of morality is nothing but the necessary and sufficient condition
of realizing this unconditional value, and that we are always free to act in
accordance with and indeed for the sake of this principle, thus free to
realize the unconditional value for which we unlike anything else in
nature have the potential.
However, Kant’s confidence in our complete freedom to live up to the
demands of morality seems to be irreconcilable with his conception of the
fundamental laws of nature: Kant understands our freedom to choose to
act in accordance with the moral law as an ability to act in any set of
circumstances as that law requires, no matter what our past behavior or
even present inclinations might suggest we will do in such circumstances;
but at the same time he understands the laws of nature as fully determin-
istic, so that the condition of nature at any one time entails its condition at
any subsequent time, including our own behavior as objects within nature,
with as much rigor as the premises of a syllogism logically entail its
conclusion. But for Kant, this conflict, which would undermine not only
our confidence in our ability to understand nature but also our motivation
to attempt to live up to the demands of morality, can be avoided, for the
only philosophical theory that can explain how we can know the deter-
ministic laws of nature also allows, contrary to all appearances, that at its
deepest level our own conduct is not dictated by those laws, but can be
governed by pure practical reason and the moral law that is its only
adequate expression. This theory is Kant’s equally famous and controversial
doctrine of “transcendental idealism.” According to transcendental
idealism, we can know the fundamental laws of nature with complete
certitude because they are not descriptions of how things are in themselves
 Introduction 3

independently of our perception and conception of them, but are rather

the structure that the laws of our own minds impose upon the way things
appear to us1 – and the laws of the mind themselves are not hidden
mysteries that can be discovered only by the empirical researches of
psychologists or neuroscientists, but can readily be discovered by every
normal human being competent at elementary arithmetic, geometry, and
logic. But precisely because the most fundamental laws of nature are in
fact only our own impositions on the appearance of reality, we can also
believe that our own choices, contrary to their appearance, are not
governed by the deterministic laws of nature, but can be freely made in
accordance with and for the sake of the moral law. At the same time, Kant
will argue, the very “fact of reason” (as he calls it) that we are free to act
for the sake of and in accordance with the moral law also implies that we
are free to flout it, and thus that the possibility of doing evil is equally
fundamental to the human will as the possibility of doing right, thus that
all human beings are at risk of doing evil not because of the original sin of
some distant ancestors but because of the radical nature of freedom itself.
Kant thus argues that the only possible explanation of our certitude
about the theoretical laws of nature also leaves room for the efficacy of
practical reason, that is, the freedom to act in accordance with the moral
law, although not for any certitude that we will so act, for such a certitude
would conflict with the most fundamental fact about freedom itself. But
now it looks as if Kant has avoided a conflict between nature and freedom,
between science and morality, only by making them irrelevant to each
other, or by dividing our own characters and placing us in two parallel
universes: in one realm where our actions are as fully determined by
antecedent events and deterministic laws as anything else in nature is, but
in another, in some sense underlying realm where our choices are
completely free even though they somehow manifest themselves in
appearance as if they had been seamlessly caused by antecedent events.
It may seem as if Kant was content with such a radically dualistic view
of human action, but ultimately he was not. For after he had argued in his
first great work, the Critique of Pure Reason of 1781 (substantially revised in
1787), that our own imposition of the fundamental laws of nature upon
appearance leaves open at least the possibility of freedom at a deeper level
of reality, and then added in the Critique of Practical Reason (CPracR) (1788)
that our awareness of our obligation to live up to the demands of the
moral law implies not merely the possibility but the actuality of our
radical freedom at this deeper level, Kant wrote a third great work, the
Critique of the Power of Judgment (CPJ) (1790), precisely in order to bridge:
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