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Sociology, Religion and Grace

Sociology, Religion and Grace provides a sociological analysis of the Renaissance.

The book focuses on the concept of grace, and the unity that exists between
its various meanings: theological (the grace of God and the gift of life),
anthropological (the foundational role of gift-giving in society, according to
Marcel Mauss; and the pleasure of sociability, according to Georg Simmel),
and aesthetical (beauty and gracefulness).
Since the seminal work of Max Weber rooted capitalism, and thus the
modern world, in the Protestant ethic, interest in the Renaissance among
social scientists has been minimal. However, this book argues that the heart
of the European tradition lies in a series of renascences. These go back to
Minoan Crete, a civilisation that emerged at about the same time and in a
manner similar to Judaism: against a spiralling logic of early globalisation,
leading to the ‘first global age’ of empire building; and continued in the
Mycenean and classical Greek civilisation, to be joined with the Judaic thread
in early Christianity. This Minoan component emphasised the beauty of the
world and radiant grace as the central value both in keeping society together
and in channelling human energies into an uplifting direction, opposed to the
descent into the unconscious forces of violence, greed and lust, combined
with the rule of ice-cold rationality and a mentality of geometric legalism.
The Renaissance forged a novel unity between the Judaic-prophetic
tradition and the Minoan-Athenian components, renewing grace in all its
aspects and thus revitalising the culture of Christian Europe, finally
overcoming the shock of barbaric invasions and the ensuing civilisational
decline combined with cruel and ritualistic legalism. This attempt tragically
failed and the modern world is the outcome of this explosion. All this has vital
contemporary relevance, as the classical European tradition is still a unique
source suggesting a way out of the spiralling logic of globalisation. After the
bankruptcy of modern ideologies, argues Arpad Szakolczai in this book, we
need not a revival of the Enlightenment project but a new Renaissance.

Arpad Szakolczai is Professor of Sociology at University College, Cork. This

book follows his previous books published by Routledge: Max Weber and
Michel Foucault: Parallel Life-Works (1998), Reflexive Historical Sociology (2000)
and The Genesis of Modernity (2003).
Routledge Advances in Sociology

This series aims to present cutting-edge developments and debates within the
field of sociology. It will provide a broad range of case studies and the latest
theoretical perspectives, while covering a variety of topics, theories and issues
from around the world. It is not confined to any particular school of thought.

1. Virtual Globalization 6. Language, Identity and

Virtual spaces/tourist spaces Conflict
Edited by David Holmes A comparative study of
language in ethnic conflict in
2. The Criminal Spectre in Europe and Eurasia
Law, Literature and Diarmait Mac Giolla Chríost
Aesthetics
Peter Hutchings 7. Immigrant Life in the U.S.
Multi-disciplinary perspectives
3. Immigrants and National Edited by Donna R. Gabaccia and
Identity in Europe Colin Wayne Leach
Anna Triandafyllidou
8. Rave Culture and Religion
4. Constructing Risk and Edited by Graham St. John
Safety in Technological
Practice 9. Creation and Returns of
Edited by Jane Summerton and Social Capital
Boel Berner A new research program
Edited by Henk Flap and
5. Europeanisation, National Beate Völker
Identities and Migration
Changes in boundary 10. Self-Care
constructions between Western Embodiment, personal
and Eastern Europe autonomy and the shaping of
Willfried Spohn and Anna health consciousness
Triandafyllidou Christopher Ziguras
11. Mechanisms of Cooperation 19. Social Isolation in Modern
Werner Raub and Jeroen Weesie Society
Roelof Hortulanus, Anja
12. After the Bell – Educational Machielse and Ludwien
Success, Public Policy and Meeuwesen
Family Background
Edited by Dalton Conley and 20. Weber and the Persistence
Karen Albright of Religion
Social theory, capitalism and
13. Youth Crime and Youth the sublime
Culture in the Inner City Joseph W. H. Lough
Bill Sanders
21. Globalization, Uncertainty
14. Emotions and Social and Late Careers in
Movements Society
Edited by Helena Flam and Edited by Hans-Peter Blossfeld,
Debra King Sandra Buchholz and Dirk
Hofäcker
15. Globalization, Uncertainty
and Youth in Society 22. Bourdieu’s Politics
Edited by Hans-Peter Blossfeld, Problems and possibilities
Erik Klijzing, Melinda Mills and Jeremy F. Lane
Karin Kurz
23. Media Bias in Reporting
16. Love, Heterosexuality Social Research?
and Society The case of reviewing ethnic
Paul Johnson inequalities in education
Martyn Hammersley
17. Agricultural Governance
Globalization and the new 24. A General Theory of
politics of regulation Emotions and Social
Edited by Vaughan Higgins and Life
Geoffrey Lawrence Warren D. TenHouten

18. Challenging Hegemonic 25. Sociology, Religion and Grace

Masculinity A quest for the Renaissance
Richard Howson Arpad Szakolczai
Sociology, Religion and Grace
A quest for the Renaissance

Arpad Szakolczai
First published 2007
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2007 Arpad Szakolczai
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN 0-203-96818-2 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–37196–1 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0–203–96818–2 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–37196–4 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–203–96818–5 (ebk)
To Daniel, Peter, Janos, Tommi and Stefi
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Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xviii

Introduction: Grace and gift-giving beyond charisma 1

The paradox of grace 1
The meanings of grace 1
Approaching a typology grace through rites of passage 2
A typology grace through the logic of gift-giving 4
From universal generality to singular particularity 7
Outline/chapter structure 10

PART 1
The births and re-births of grace in Antiquity 13

Introduction to part 1: the Minoan and Judaic roots

of Europe 15
Coincidence and conjecture 15
Henri Frankfort on Hebrew transcendence against nature 16
Henrietta Groenewegen-Frankfort on Minoan grace of nature 16

1 Minoan Grace 19
Kerényi on the Minoan Dionysos 19
Themes in Minoan art 20
The sudden emergence of Minoan civilisation 24
An attempt at interpretation: a religion of womanhood? 26
A Minoan Trickster? 28
Concluding remarks 29
x Contents
2 Grace in Greece 30
Greek myths 31
The Cretan origins of Greek mythology 32
Grace in Athens 38
Athens’s golden age 45
Themistocles 48
Pericles 49
Socrates: graceful speech without beauty 53

3 The Three Graces 54

The Graces in mythology 54
The Three Graces in art 57
The Graces and the Furies; or the counter-spiral 61

Conclusion to part 1 65

PART 2
The experiential bases of Tuscan Renaissance painting 67

Introduction to part 2: what is the Renaissance?

Franciscan renewal vs. revival of Pagan Antiquity 69

4 The Tuscan Renaissance 71

Lucca 72
Pisa 74
Siena 78
Florence 81

5 The Tuscan ‘maniera greca’ and its experiential bases 88

What is the ‘maniera greca’? 88
1204–5: the epochal experiential knot 90
The San Matteo Crucifix 91
The early Franciscan movement: the stigmas and the
Joachimite wing 93
Giunta Pisano: the emotivism of a suffering and dying god 96

6 Cimabue and the Bonaventuran origins of

Renaissance painting 98
St Bonaventure: a Franciscan revival 98
The cult of Mary 104
 Contents xi
Ugolino di Tedice: towards the new Tuscan Madonna 105
Cimabue: the early years 106
Cimabue in Rome 109
Cimabue in Florence 112
Cimabue in Assisi 115
Cimabue: the last work 119
Concluding remarks 119

Conclusion to part 2 121

PART 3
The flowering and demise of Renaissance Grace 123

Introduction to part 3: Grace, Calumny and the

return of the Trickster, or Alberti’s advice and
admonition 125

7 Leonardo da Vinci: the early years 127

Introduction 127
Leonardo’s early years 132
c.1466: the move to Florence 141
In Verrocchio’s workshop 143
Verrocchio’s early life and first commissions 145
The Golden Years and further promise 151
Verrocchio as painter 160
Leonardo’s early paintings 173
The break between Leonardo and Verrocchio 180

8 Leonardo da Vinci: the mature works 191

The mystery years: 1476–8 191
Back in Florence: 1478–82 192
1482–3: the move to Milan 200
Leonardo’s theology 202
1500–1: the return to Florence 206
The last pointing finger: the Baptist/Bacchus 214

9 Michelangelo 218
Early activities 218
The ‘demonic’ according to Enrico Castelli 220
Twisted male nudes in battle scenes 222
xii Contents
The Pollaiuolos, or the return of the Trickster 226
Michelangelo’s stony Madonnas 233
David, or the apotheosis of revolt 237
The ‘titanic’ according to Károly Kerényi 239
Michelangelo’s tombs 242
The Sistine Chapel vault 247
Teaching the world 250
The Last Judgment 251
The dead Christ as the model for life 254
Michelangelo’s personality: ethical terror as another
face of the Trickster 256

10 Raphael 259
Early years 260
1504: the move to Florence 262
Raphael’s dilemma 265
The second answer: the Leonardo Madonnas 266
The practice of portraits 270
Late 1506: the trauma of Leonardo’s departure and the
first encounter with Michelangelo 277
1508: the call to Rome 283
Visions of Madonnas 295
1513–14: the new encounter with Leonardo 305
The last works, 1518–20 310

Conclusion to part 3 321

Conclusion: retrieving connections 325

Notes 328
References 345
Name index 359
Subject index 368
Preface

Beauty would save the world.

(Dostoevsky, The Idiot)
Beauty is truth, truth beauty.
(Keats, Ode on a Grecian Urn)
Supposing truth is a woman . . .
(Nietzsche,
Beyond Good and Evil )

This book is situated at an intersection point that explains its broad historical
and conceptual scope and hopefully justifies its size. It is first of all an account
of the rise of modernity, continuing the line of work started in my three
previous monographs. However, it also goes beyond them in several respects.
The previous books stayed close to the ideas of classical figures of social
and political thought, focusing on Max Weber and Michel Foucault, and also
on Norbert Elias and increasingly on Eric Voegelin, trying to reconstruct
their understanding of the rise of the modern world. This book continues the
research pioneered by Weber and company, taking up the challenges
launched by Nietzsche, but represents a significant reorientation of
direction.
The radical novelty of Weber lay in the emphasis placed on religious
factors in the rise of modernity, identifying the Protestant ethic with the
‘spirit’ of capitalism. Together with the contemporary work of Johan
Huizinga, this implied a radical reassessment of the Renaissance. While since
the Enlightenment the Renaissance was considered to be the birth-place of
modernity, Huizinga redefined this period as the ‘autumn’ of the Middle
Ages, while Weber identified a break between the Renaissance and the
Reformation. As a result, social theorists lost interest in the Renaissance, and
even those equalling Weber in breadth and significance focused on the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: the ‘court society’ or the ‘disciplinary
society’. Without questioning this work the book argues that a proper
understanding of our present requires a return to the Renaissance.
xiv Preface
It is also necessary to complement the central thrust of Weber’s orientation.
In his entire work Weber was preoccupied with the problem of modern
‘rationality’. Recent research has much clarified what Weber meant by terms
like ‘rationality’ or ‘rationalisation’, highlighting the manner in which the
rationalisation of the conduct of life (Lebensführung) rendered the rise of
modern capitalism and democracy possible, and noting the concern with the
rise of modern science, a project Weber never engaged in but considered as
parallel (Weber 1978; for details, see Szakolczai 1998). However, here we
also encounter a significant blind spot in Weber, as the modern world was not
only produced by an increasing rationalisation, but also through the rising
prevalence of a certain kind of ‘magic’, not simply metaphorically but in a
very real sense, and in close correspondence with the kind of rationalisation
processes analysed by Weber, thus related to the conduct of life and the rise
of modern science.
Concerning the latter, though science and magic are not identical, neither
are they completely different. The tight connections between the two can be
taken back at least as far as the agricultural ‘revolution’. Settled, agricultural
societies have always been much more prone to magic, myths and rituals than
nomadic, hunter-gatherer societies. The significant and inherent positive link
between ancient magic and the modern, utilitarian power-knowledge
complex has quite straightforward reasons: both are primarily concerned with
forcing the course of things, of imposing a control, from the outside, on the
forces of life and nature; a persistent, reckless, arrogant hubris asserting
the central position of human beings, the ‘self’ within the cosmos. Modern
utilitarian science does nothing else, but continues the millennia-old project
of magic by better means.
The same holds true for the other central field of modern rationality, the
conduct of human life. While rationalisation here implies the systematic,
methodical regularisation of behaviour by the ‘word’, emphasising scientific
inventions like the mechanical clock or the printing machine, at the same
time, and using much the same inventions, human life has also been
increasingly controlled by increasingly standardised and mass produced
images. While the link between modern science, the Gutenberg galaxy and
the rise of Protestantism has been extensively studied, the much more tricky
connection between science, magic and image-power, and its Renaissance
roots, have remained mostly hidden.
Finally, Weber’s project must be complemented in other senses as well.
Terms like ‘disenchantment’, ‘rationalisation’, or ‘bureaucratisation’, and
especially the ‘religious rejections of the world’ express Weber’s fundamental
unease with the dynamics of modernity, rooted in Nietzsche’s concern with
‘nihilism’. By identifying ‘nihilism’ at the core of the modern ‘project’,
Nietzsche threw a challenge that subsequent generations of thinkers only
ignored at their peril. However, beyond sharpening his diagnosis, we should
also follow Nietzsche and pose the question of what might lead out of
nihilism.
 Preface xv
Nietzsche struck the right note by refusing the normative strategy of
armchair academic philosophising, focusing instead on the actual historical
reality of non-nihilistic forms of life, but got quickly lost in the evolutionary
biologism of the late nineteenth century. Beyond Nietzsche, such project
should start with recognising that European culture since its earliest
beginnings was dominated by the unique preoccupation of identifying the
sources of nihilism at the very heart of culture and civilisation and trying to
overcome such tendencies, always threatened by a relapse. This requires an
increased level of self-consciousness, beyond Enlightenment arrogance and
critical self-hatred.
A first step towards heightened self-consciousness is to recognise the
significance of recognition. The identification of both the forces of nihilism
and the tendencies opposing nihilism over millennia depends not on ‘cognitive’
skills but on the powers of recognition: distinction, discrimination and
discernment. While the distinction between cognitive and recognitive
knowledge has been central to Plato’s thinking, dominating the conflict
between Socrates and the Sophists, it has not been rendered explicit in the
history of philosophy (see Ricoeur 2004). Fortunately, in sociology recognition
has been emphasised by Alessandro Pizzorno (1987, 1991, 2000), providing
one of the most important bases of this book.
Just as the roots of modern nihilism go back to the Renaissance, the same
holds true for the project of overcoming nihilism. It furthermore leads to a
single term which resumes this work of renewal and reconstruction, grace.
Thus, apart from being a sociology of the Renaissance, this book is also a
sociology of grace.
Even here Weber indicates a first step. In identifying a non-world-rejecting
type of religion, based on New Testament scholarship but also incorporating
research in anthropology, comparative mythology and ancient history, Weber
introduced the term charisma. Weber’s approach to charisma, however, had
major shortcomings. Though broadening the meaning of the term and
originally connecting it to his typology of social action, in Economy and Society
it became restricted to the typology of power. Thus it became used mostly to
characterise a type of leadership, with the term ‘charismatic leader’ often
applied for the kind of political leaders that showed the opposite characteristics
of Weberian charisma.
In the footsteps of Paul Radin and Károly Kerényi, and following a hint
by Zygmunt Bauman (1990), Agnes Horvath came up with the suggestion
of complementing Weber’s typology with the figure of the Trickster, widely
used in comparative anthropology and mythology. This book will develop
further the links between grace and gift-giving, incorporating the ideas of
Marcel Mauss, considering the competing logics of grace and gift-giving and
of the Trickster as constitutive of the contrast between the spread of nihilism
and the efforts of renewal. From this perspective the Renaissance as project is
to generate a harmonious balance between various aspects of grace, and the
European Renaissance was only one in a chain of renewals connected by
xvi Preface
eruptions of manifest grace. In each of these Renaissances spurt-like renewals
of gracefulness and gift-relations were always accompanied with intensified
activities of Trickster figures asserting that all this is illusion, as the world is
governed by objective personal interests; mostly by power, money and sex.
Thus, just as interest in the ‘Enlightenment project’ should be replaced by
interest in the Renaissance as a project, always incomplete and interminable,
the critical concern with the ‘dialectics of the Enlightenment’ is to be
replaced by the history of encounters between the radiant and indestructible
forces of grace and the machinations of those who, whether intentionally or
not, embody the Trickster logic.
In terms of its methodology, the book takes as its starting point the
‘genealogical method’ as pioneered by Nietzsche, taken up by Weber, and
continued by Elias, Voegelin or Foucault. While this type of analysis is
markedly different from mainstream academic research, dominated by
neo-positivism and neo-Kantianism, it is also orthogonal both to critical
theory and the kind of post-modern/post-structuralist paradigm that also lists
Nietzsche and Foucault among its sources. The most important difference is
that – in opposition to the oscillation between the apocalyptic and ironic-
deconstructionist poles, characteristic of the critical tradition – it starts by
recognising that Nietzsche had a dual purpose with genealogy: the diagnosis
of European nihilism and the reconstruction of the ‘good European’ tradition,
or the renewal of ‘what is noble’. This concern already animated Weber’s
interest in charisma, Elias’s work on the ‘civilizing process’, or Voegelin’s con-
trast between the ‘two modernities’, and surfaced with particular clarity in
Foucault’s recovery of the ‘care of the self’ and ‘parrhesia’ as central for classi-
cal philosophy. This internal renewal of Foucault’s project establishes tight
links between Foucault, Weber and Voegelin, but also strict parallels with
those East-Central European thinkers like Patocka, Kerényi, Hamvas and
Hankiss who also recognised the identity of Europe in such basic values (see
Szakolczai 1994, 2005b; Szakolczai and Wydra 2006).
Apart from integrating these approaches, the book will also rely on further
anthropological concepts. The most important is the term ‘liminality’,
invented by van Gennep and Victor Turner to characterise the formative and
transformative power of temporary in-between periods of transition.
Following Zygmunt Bauman even here, this will be developed further to
render the genealogical method more precise, explaining how certain
‘conditions of emergence’ can leave a lasting ‘stamp’.
The central term of this historical methodology is the word ‘experience’, as
the aim is to reconstruct the experiential basis of thought. Whatever human
beings do is profoundly invested with thought processes, even when this is
not evident for participants. Thought is not reducible to representing reality,
but neither is the history of thought independent of reality, following the
internal logic of ideas or the self-realisation of consciousness. Rather, the
effective interaction of reality and thought happens in unstable moments of
transition in which what previously was taken for granted has lost its validity
 Preface xvii
and grip, while new norms and institutions have not yet been established.
The task of genealogy is to show how these new certainties are formed on the
basis of the experiences undergone, focusing on the modality of the solution:
whether it overcomes the negative aspects of these experiences, returning to
the graceful world of gift-relations, or whether it implies an apocalyptic
resignation to suffering based on a nihilistic assessment of the world and its
dominant forces, sucked into the spiralling logic of the Trickster. This
interpretation of experience is based on the encounter between philosophical
and cultural anthropology that took place when Victor Turner recognised the
fundamental affinities between his work and the earlier project of Wilhelm
Dilthey (see Szakolczai 2004).
In this way the centrality of the Renaissance as a crucial period of
transition (Elias 2000[1939]) between the medieval and the modern worlds
becomes fully visible. The question is why the promise of a genuine revival
through an intensified interest in grace in arts, in social institutions and
practice, in philosophy and theology ended up in the chaotic and terrible
times of the sixteenth century, the period of religious and civil wars
(Koselleck 1988[1959]), the Europe of fear (Delumeau 1978).
The modern world is produced by the collapse and fragmentation of the
Renaissance; if we want to understand modernity in order to overcome it, as
we must, the key lies in the reasons why the Renaissance collapsed, while
hope is vesteol in the indestructible nature of the forces that time and again
lead to new renascences.
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