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Innovative and Emerging
Technologies in the Bio-marine
Food Sector
This page intentionally left blank
Innovative and Emerging
Technologies in the Bio-marine
Food Sector
Applications, Regulations, and Prospects

Edited by

Marco Garcia-Vaquero
School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin,
Dublin, Ireland

Gaurav Rajauria
Department of Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Munster Technological University, Tralee, Co. Kerry, Ireland
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Contents
Contributors .......................................................................................................... xvii

CHAPTER 1 Overview of the application of innovative and

emerging technologies in the bio-marine food
sector ................................................................... 1
Marco Garcia-Vaquero and Gaurav Rajauria
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................1
1.2 Marine resources ............................................................................1
1.3 Emerging technologies...................................................................2
1.4 Book objectives ..............................................................................5
1.5 Book structure ................................................................................5
References.................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 Regulations on the use of emerging technologies
and bio-marine food products ............................... 13
Selene Pedrós-Garrido and Mariateresa Ferone
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................13
2.2 Principles of food regulation .......................................................14
2.2.1 International organizations ................................................ 14
2.2.2 European Union ................................................................. 16
2.2.3 Risk assessment, risk management, and risk
communication................................................................... 17
2.3 Food safety systems .....................................................................18
2.3.1 European Union ................................................................. 19
2.3.2 United States...................................................................... 26
2.3.3 Canada ............................................................................... 27
2.3.4 Latin America .................................................................... 27
2.3.5 Australia and New Zealand ............................................... 28
2.3.6 Africa ................................................................................. 29
References.................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3 Equipment and recent advances in ultrasound
technology .......................................................... 35
Arturo B. Soro, Marco Garcia-Vaquero, and
Brijesh K. Tiwari
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................35
3.2 Ultrasound principles ...................................................................36
3.3 Applications of ultrasounds in food processes ............................39

v
vi Contents

3.3.1 Freezing and thawing processes........................................ 39

3.3.2 Extraction of multiple bioactive compounds .................... 40
3.3.3 Filtration processes ............................................................ 40
3.3.4 Dehydration and drying processes .................................... 40
3.3.5 Enzymatic and microbial inactivation processes .............. 41
3.3.6 Emulsification processes ................................................... 41
3.4 Current advances in ultrasound equipment .................................41
3.5 Ultrasound to improve conventional methods
in the bio-marine sector ...............................................................45
3.6 Use of ultrasound combined with other innovative
technologies..................................................................................51
3.7 Future trends of sonication and limitations of the technology ...54
Acknowledgments ....................................................................... 55
References.................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER 4 Ultrasound-assisted extraction of proteins
and carbohydrates ............................................... 63
Prasad Chavan and Rahul Yadav
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................63
4.2 Marine sources of proteins and carbohydrates ............................64
4.3 Ultrasound mechanism of action .................................................65
4.4 Principles of ultrasound-assisted extraction ................................67
4.5 Ultrasonic extraction of proteins .................................................68
4.5.1 Algae (Macroalgae and Microalgae)................................. 68
4.5.2 Fish and shellfish............................................................... 68
4.6 Ultrasound-assisted extraction of carbohydrates .........................71
4.7 Applications of protein and carbohydrate compounds................74
References.................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 5 Ultrasound-assisted extraction of lipids,
carotenoids, and other compounds from
marine resources................................................. 81
Komal V. Mahindrakar and Virendra K. Rathod
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................81
5.2 Mechanism of ultrasound-assisted extraction..............................83
5.3 Parameters affecting ultrasound-assisted extraction....................86
5.3.1 Sonication time .................................................................. 86
5.3.2 Ultrasound frequency ........................................................ 87
5.3.3 Temperature ....................................................................... 87
 Contents vii

5.3.4 Ultrasonic power................................................................ 88

5.3.5 Effect of extractant/solvent type ....................................... 89
5.3.6 Effect of solid to solvent ratio .......................................... 90
5.3.7 Modes of sonication .......................................................... 90
5.4 Marine resources ..........................................................................91
5.4.1 Algae .................................................................................. 91
5.4.2 Marine micro-organisms, vertebrates, invertebrates,
and their wastes ................................................................. 92
5.5 Ultrasound-assisted extraction of different bioactive
from various marine sources........................................................92
5.5.1 Lipids ................................................................................. 93
5.5.2 Carotenoids ........................................................................ 97
5.5.3 Other pigments ................................................................ 101
5.5.4 Phenolic compounds........................................................ 104
5.6 Marine-derived compounds and prospects ................................108
5.7 Industrial applications of marine origin compounds.................109
5.7.1 Pharmaceutical industries ................................................ 110
5.7.2 Food and nutraceutical industries.................................... 110
5.7.3 Cosmetic industries.......................................................... 111
5.8 Ultrasonic devices ......................................................................111
5.8.1 Ultrasonic bath................................................................. 112
5.8.2 Ultrasonic probe .............................................................. 112
5.8.3 Commercial ultrasonic devices ....................................... 113
5.9 Ultrasound-assisted extraction: Industrial prospects .................116
5.9.1 Sustainable approach, scale-up and cost......................... 117
5.10 Summary ....................................................................................118
References.................................................................................. 119
CHAPTER 6 Other ultrasound-assisted processes................... 129
€ter
Shikha Ojha and Oliver K. Schlu
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................129
6.2 Ultrasound-assisted decontamination and preservation ............132
6.3 Ultrasound-assisted heat and mass transfer processes ..............137
6.3.1 Freezing ........................................................................... 137
6.3.2 Thawing ........................................................................... 138
6.3.3 Dehydration and drying................................................... 140
6.4 Other applications ......................................................................142
6.5 Conclusions ................................................................................143
References.................................................................................. 143
viii Contents

CHAPTER 7 Equipment and recent advances in pulsed

electric fields.................................................... 149
Christa Aoude, Alica Lammerskitten,
Oleksii Parniakov, Rui Zhang, Nabil Grimi,
Henri El Zakhem, and Eugene Vorobiev
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................149
7.2 PEF processing...........................................................................151
7.2.1 Historical background...................................................... 151
7.2.2 PEF equipment and mechanisms .................................... 152
7.2.3 Assessment of the extent of electroporation ................... 155
7.2.4 Stages and purpose of the PEF treatment ....................... 155
7.3 Recent advances in the application of PEF in the
bio-marine food sector ...............................................................156
7.3.1 Application to fish ........................................................... 156
7.3.2 Application to caviar and fish roe products.................... 159
7.3.3 Application to microalgae and seaweed ......................... 159
7.3.4 Application to crustaceans............................................... 161
7.3.5 Application to mollusks................................................... 161
7.3.6 By-product valorization................................................... 162
7.4 Industrial PEF equipment ..........................................................163
7.5 Advantages and limitations of PEF ...........................................165
7.6 Future trends...............................................................................166
7.7 Summary ....................................................................................166
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 167
References.................................................................................. 167
CHAPTER 8 Pulsed electric fields for the extraction
of proteins and carbohydrates from marine
resources.......................................................... 173
Ricardo N. Pereira, Zita Avelar, Sara G. Pereira,
Cristina M.R. Rocha, and Jose A. Teixeira
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................173
8.2 Marine bioresources ...................................................................175
8.2.1 Microalgae ....................................................................... 176
8.2.2 Macroalgae....................................................................... 177
8.3 Electric field extraction..............................................................178
8.3.1 Pulsed electric fields........................................................ 179
8.3.2 POH and moderate electric fields ................................... 181
 Contents ix

8.4 PEF extraction of marine bioresources......................................182

8.4.1 Proteins ............................................................................ 183
8.4.2 Carbohydrates .................................................................. 186
8.5 Future prospects and conclusions ..............................................188
References.................................................................................. 189

CHAPTER 9 Pulsed electric fields for the extraction of lipids,

pigments, and polyphenols from cultured
microalgae........................................................ 197
Tomás Lafarga and Ingrid Aguiló-Aguayo
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................197
9.2 Pulsed electric fields for the extraction of lipids ......................199
9.3 Pigments: Chlorophylls and carotenoids ...................................205
9.3.1 Chlorophylls..................................................................... 205
9.3.2 Carotenoids ...................................................................... 207
9.4 Polyphenols and other valuable compounds .............................209
9.5 Towards industrial products derived from marine
microorganisms ..........................................................................211
9.5.1 Utilization of microalgae-derived lipids and
pigments in foods ............................................................ 211
9.5.2 Other marine organisms .................................................. 213
9.6 Conclusions ................................................................................214
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 215
References.................................................................................. 215

CHAPTER 10 Other pulse-assisted processes for the

bio-marine food sector....................................... 223
Elena S. Inguglia
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................223
10.2 Mechanism of microbial inactivation ........................................224
10.3 Application of PEF for seafood preservation and
improved quality of fish and fish products ..............................225
10.3.1 PEF to enhanced drying, brining, and marinating ........ 228
10.4 Application of PEF for by-products valorization ......................228
10.5 Advantage, disadvantage, and market challenges
of PEF.........................................................................................229
10.6 Conclusions ................................................................................231
References.................................................................................. 231
x Contents

CHAPTER 11 Equipment and recent advances in

supercritical fluids extraction............................. 235
Enrique Hidalgo-Vázquez, Mario E. Barocio,
Itzel Y. López-Pacheco, Laura Isabel Rodas-Zuluaga,
Brando Morales-Flores, Carlos Castillo-Zacarı́as,
J.E. Sosa-Hernández, Hafiz M.N. Iqbal, and
Roberto Parra-Saldı́var
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................235
11.2 Supercritical fluid extraction of functional ingredients
from marine species...................................................................236
11.2.1 Carotenoids .................................................................... 236
11.2.2 Bio-oils and other lipids ................................................ 240
11.2.3 Saccharides .................................................................... 242
11.2.4 Proteins .......................................................................... 242
11.3 Conclusions ................................................................................243
11.4 Summary points .........................................................................244
References.................................................................................. 244

CHAPTER 12 Extraction of carbohydrates and proteins from

algal resources using supercritical and
subcritical fluids for high-quality products .......... 249
Sreya Sarkar, Sambit Sarkar, Mriganka Sekhar Manna,
Kalyan Gayen, and Tridib Kumar Bhowmick
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................249
12.2 Extraction of biomolecules through different fluid
extraction methods.....................................................................252
12.2.1 Supercritical and subcritical fluid extraction of
biomolecules .................................................................. 252
12.2.2 Use of co-solvents with SCCO2 for extraction of
carbohydrates ................................................................. 253
12.2.3 Carbohydrate extraction from algae using a
subcritical solvent extraction......................................... 255
12.2.4 The combined use of SCCO2 and SWE for the
extraction of sugar and protein ..................................... 258
12.2.5 Protein, peptides, and amino acid extraction
by SFE and SWE method.............................................. 259
12.3 Improvement of extraction yield ...............................................262
12.3.1 Extraction yield improvement for carbohydrates
and protein ..................................................................... 262
12.3.2 Extraction of bioactive molecules................................. 263
 Contents xi

12.4 Current patents on supercritical/subcritical fluid extraction

processes for carbohydrate and protein extraction from
microalgae..................................................................................265
12.5 Conclusion and future prospect .................................................267
Acknowledgement ..................................................................... 268
References.................................................................................. 268
CHAPTER 13 Supercritical fluid extraction of lipids,
carotenoids, and other compounds from
marine sources.................................................. 277
Diego Ballesteros-Vivas, Jenny Paola Ortega-Barbosa,
Fabián Parada-Alfonso, Sandra R.S. Ferreira, and
Andrea del Pilar Sánchez-Camargo
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................278
13.2 Supercritical fluid extraction of high-value compounds
from marine sources ..................................................................280
13.2.1 Factors and parameters affecting the SFE process ....... 281
13.3 Recent applications of SFE for high value compounds
from marine resources: Microalgae, macroalgae, fisheries
products, and by-products..........................................................285
13.3.1 Lipids ............................................................................. 286
13.3.2 Pigments......................................................................... 298
13.3.3 Phenolic compounds...................................................... 301
13.4 Recent advances in gas-expanded liquids processes
for marine products....................................................................302
13.5 Green-based biorefinery approaches for obtaining
bioactive compounds from marine sources...............................303
13.6 Potential applications of the marine bioactive extracts
in the food industry....................................................................306
13.7 Conclusions and future trends ...................................................308
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 308
References.................................................................................. 309
CHAPTER 14 Other supercritical fluid processing .................... 319
M. Clemente-Carazo, I. Clemente, and
Santiago Condon
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................319
14.2 Main features and uses of SCCO2 .............................................321
14.3 Mechanism of action of CO2 as antimicrobial..........................322
14.4 Applications of supercritical fluids in shellfish
and seafood ................................................................................325
xii Contents

14.5 Conclusions ................................................................................327

Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 328
References.................................................................................. 328
CHAPTER 15 Equipment and recent advances in microwave
processing ........................................................ 333
Lucı́a López-Hortas, Marı́a D. Torres, and
Herminia Domı́nguez
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................333
15.2 Extraction technologies..............................................................333
15.2.1 Traditional extraction technologies............................... 334
15.2.2 Emerging extraction technologies ................................. 334
15.3 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)......................................337
15.3.1 Principles of microwave treatment ............................... 338
15.3.2 Types of microwave processing equipment.................. 340
15.3.3 Use of microwave technology for the extraction
of bioactives from marine food sources........................ 341
15.4 Conclusions and future trends ...................................................347
References.................................................................................. 351
CHAPTER 16 Microwave-assisted extraction of proteins
and carbohydrates from marine resources........... 361
Pallavi Sharma and Ruchika Zalpouri
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................361
16.2 Methodology of applying microwave-assisted extraction
technique ....................................................................................362
16.3 Microwave-assisted extraction of proteins and
carbohydrates from algae...........................................................363
16.4 Microwave-assisted extraction of fish.......................................368
16.5 Conclusion..................................................................................370
References.................................................................................. 370
CHAPTER 17 Microwave-assisted extraction of lipids,
carotenoids, and other compounds from marine
resources.......................................................... 375
Xu Zhou, Wanqing Ding, and Wenbiao Jin
17.1 Introduction ................................................................................376
17.2 Microwave-assisted extraction ..................................................376
17.3 Microwave-assisted extraction of lipids from marine
resources.....................................................................................377
 Contents xiii

17.3.1 Total lipids ..................................................................... 377

17.3.2 Fatty acids...................................................................... 382
17.3.3 Comprehensive utilization............................................. 383
17.4 Microwave-assisted extraction of carotenoids from marine
resources.....................................................................................384
17.5 Microwave-assisted extraction of other compounds
from marine resources ...............................................................387
17.6 Summary points .........................................................................388
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 389
References.................................................................................. 389
CHAPTER 18 Other microwave-assisted processes: Microwaves
as a method ensuring microbiological safety
of food .............................................................. 395
Krzysztof Skowron, Natalia Wiktorczyk-Kapischke,
Katarzyna Grudlewska-Buda, Ewa Wałecka-Zacharska,
and Joanna Kwiecińska-Piróg
18.1 The hazard for consumers related to microbial food
contamination—The most important pathogens and
food-borne diseases....................................................................395
18.2 Major microorganisms related to marine food:
The largest and latest epidemic .................................................397
18.2.1 Characteristics of pathogens most commonly
transmitted via seafood.................................................. 398
18.3 Structure of microorganisms .....................................................401
18.4 Possible lethal damage in the microbial cells ...........................404
18.5 Microwaves as an alternative disinfection method...................405
18.6 The impact of microwaves on bacterial cells ...........................407
References.................................................................................. 410
Further reading .......................................................................... 416
CHAPTER 19 Extraction of high-value compounds from marine
biomass via ionic liquid-based techniques .......... 417
Yujie Zhang and Lars Rehmmann
19.1 Introduction ................................................................................417
19.2 General structure and properties of ILs.....................................418
19.3 High-value products from marine biomass ...............................423
19.3.1 Omega-3......................................................................... 423
19.3.2 Phycobiliproteins ........................................................... 425
19.3.3 Astaxanthin .................................................................... 427
xiv Contents

19.3.4 Polyphenols.................................................................... 429

19.3.5 Hydroxyapatite............................................................... 429
19.4 Environmental and economic outlook on the extraction
process of ILs.............................................................................431
19.5 Conclusions and perspective .....................................................433
References.................................................................................. 433
CHAPTER 20 Application of pressurized liquids to extract
high-value compounds from marine biomass ....... 441
Mahesha M. Poojary, Alice Laurora, Marianne N. Lund,
and Brijesh K. Tiwari
20.1 Introduction ................................................................................441
20.2 Principles....................................................................................442
20.3 Operation....................................................................................443
20.4 Effect of parameters...................................................................446
20.5 Advantages and disadvantages ..................................................447
20.6 Marine biomass..........................................................................448
20.6.1 Marine algae and cyanobacteria.................................... 448
20.6.2 Marine invertebrates ...................................................... 449
20.6.3 Marine by-products........................................................ 449
20.7 Pressurized liquid extraction of value-added compounds ........449
20.7.1 Pigments......................................................................... 449
20.8 Phycobiliproteins .......................................................................462
20.8.1 Lipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).......... 463
20.8.2 Polysaccharides.............................................................. 465
20.8.3 Proteins .......................................................................... 467
20.8.4 Medicinal compounds and functional foods ................. 468
20.9 Conclusions ................................................................................470
References.................................................................................. 470
CHAPTER 21 Application of plasma technologies for food
preservation ...................................................... 481
Yi-Ming Zhao and Apurva Patange
21.1 Introduction ................................................................................481
21.2 Principle of plasma generation ..................................................482
21.3 Plasma chemistry .......................................................................484
21.4 Application of cold plasma for marine food products
preservation ................................................................................485
21.5 Application of cold plasma for marine protein alteration ........489
21.6 Advantages and limitations of cold plasma in food
preservation ................................................................................490
References.................................................................................. 491
 Contents xv

CHAPTER 22 High-pressure processing for food preservation... 495

Aamir Iqbal, Ayesha Murtaza, Carlos A. Pinto,
Jorge A. Saraiva, Xuan Liu, Zhenzhou Zhu,
Jose Manuel Lorenzo, and Krystian Marszałek
22.1 Introduction ................................................................................495
22.2 Mechanism and equipment of HPP ...........................................498
22.2.1 High-pressure vessel...................................................... 498
22.2.2 Closures.......................................................................... 499
22.2.3 Pressure generation........................................................ 499
22.2.4 Pressure transmitting medium ....................................... 499
22.2.5 Process control system .................................................. 500
22.3 Working principles of HPP .......................................................500
22.3.1 Adiabatic heat of compression ...................................... 500
22.3.2 Isostatic pressure principle ............................................ 501
22.3.3 Le Chatelier’s principle ................................................. 501
22.3.4 Microscopic ordering principle ..................................... 501
22.4 Pressure-based processes ...........................................................502
22.4.1 Application of pressure in conventional foods
processing operations .................................................... 502
22.4.2 Novel application of high-pressure in the food
processing operations .................................................... 503
22.5 Applications of HPP and HS to marine products .....................506
22.5.1 Effect of HPP on protein ............................................... 506
22.5.2 Effect of HPP and HS on microorganisms ................... 507
22.5.3 Effects of HPP and HS on the color of the seafood
muscle ............................................................................ 508
22.5.4 Effect of HPP and HS on endogenous enzymes........... 508
22.5.5 Effects of HPP and HS on texture ................................ 509
22.5.6 Effect of HPP and HS on lipid oxidation ..................... 510
22.6 Potential limitation of HPP processing .....................................510
Acknowledgments ..................................................................... 511
References.................................................................................. 512
Index ......................................................................................................................519
This page intentionally left blank
Contributors
Ingrid Aguiló-Aguayo
Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Postharvest Programme,
Lleida, Catalonia, Spain
Christa Aoude
Sorbonne University, University of Technology of Compiegne, Laboratory of
Integrated Transformations of Renewable Resources (UTC/ESCOM, EA 4297
TIMR), Research Center of Royallieu, Compiegne Cedex, France; Department of
Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Balamand, Tripoli,
Lebanon
Zita Avelar
CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
Diego Ballesteros-Vivas
Food Chemistry Research Group, High Pressure Laboratory, Departamento de
Quı́mica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia;
Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquı́mica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
Mario E. Barocio
Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Monterrey,
Mexico
Tridib Kumar Bhowmick
Department of Bioengineering, National Institute of Technology Agartala,
Agartala, West Tripura, India
Carlos Castillo-Zacarı́as
Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Monterrey,
Mexico
Prasad Chavan
Research Scholar, Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India
I. Clemente
School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin,
Ireland
M. Clemente-Carazo
Department of Food and Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Institute of Plant
Biotechnology, Polytechnic University of Cartagena (ETSIA), Cartagena, Spain
Santiago Condon
National Center for Food Technology and Safety (CNTA), Navarra, Spain

xvii
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