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Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series
General Editors: Megan Vaughan, Kings' College, Cambridge and Richard
Drayton, King's College, London
This informative series covers the broad span of modern imperial history while
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during recent centuries.
Titles include:
Sunil S. Amrith
DECOLONIZING INTERNATIONAL HEALTH
India and Southeast Asia, 1930-65
Tony Ballantyne
ORIENTALISM AND RACE
Aryanism in the British Empire
Robert J. Blyth
THE EMPIRE OF THE RAJ
Eastern Africa and the Middle East, 1858-1947
Roy Bridges (editor)
IMPERIALISM, DECOLONIZATION AND AFRICA
Studies Presented to John Hargreaves
L. J. Butler
COPPER EMPIRE
Mining and the Colonial State in Northern Rhodesia, c.1930-64
Hilary M. Carey (editor)
EMPIRES OF RELIGION
Nandini Chatterjee
THE MAKING OF INDIAN SECULARISM
Empire, Law and Christianity, 1830-1960
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IMAGINED COMMONWEALTH
Cambridge Essays on Commonwealth and International Literature in English
Michael S. Dodson
ORIENTALISM, EMPIRE AND NATIONAL CULTURE
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Ulrike Hillemann
ASIAN EMPIRE AND BRITISH KNOWLEDGE
China and the Networks of British Imperial Expansion
B. D. Hopkins
THE MAKING OF MODERN AFGHANISTAN
Ronald Hyam
BRITAIN'S IMPERIAL CENTURY, 1815-1914
A Study of Empire and Expansion
Third Edition
Iftekhar Iqbal
THE BENGAL DELTA
Ecology, State and Social Change, 1843-1943
Brian Ireland
THE US MILITARY IN HAWAI'I
Colonialism, Memory and Resistance
Robin Jeffrey
POLITICS, WOMEN AND WELL-BEING
How Kerala became a 'Model'
Gerold Krozewski
MONEY AND THE END OF EMPIRE
British International Economic Policy and the Colonies, 1947-58
Sloan Mahone and Megan Vaughan (editors)
PSYCHIATRY AND EMPIRE
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AUTOBIOGRAPHY, TRAVEL AND POST-NATIONAL IDENTITY
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REDEFINING THE BONDS OF COMMONWEALTH 1939-1948
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Gabriel Paquette
ENLIGHTENMENT, GOVERNANCE AND REFORM IN SPAIN AND ITS EMPIRE
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IRISH AND INDIAN
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HEADHUNTING AND COLONIALISM
Anthropology and the Circulation of Human Skulls in the Portuguese Empire,
1870-1930
Michael Silvestri
IRELAND AND INDIA
Nationalism, Empire and Memory
John Singleton and Paul Robertson
ECONOMIC RELATIONS BETWEEN BRITAIN AND AUSTRALASIA 1945-1970
Aparna Vaidik
IMPERIAL ANDAMANS
Colonial Encounter and Island History
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THE DOMINATION OF STRANGERS
Modern Governance in Eastern India, 1780-1835

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Elites and Decolonization
in the Twentieth Century
Edited by

Jost Dülffer
Professor ofInternational History, University of Cologne, Germany
and
Marc Frey
Helmut Schmidt Chair ofInternational History, Jacobs University, Bremen, Germany

palgrave
macmillan
*
Editorial matter, selection and introduction © jost DOlffer and Marc Frey 2011
All remaining chapters © their respective authors 2011
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2011 978-0-230-24369-9

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Elites and decolonization in the twentieth century I [edited by] jost DOlffer
and Marc Frey.
p.cm.
Includes index.
1. Decolonization-History-20th century. 2. Elite (Social sciences)-
History-20th century. I. Diilffer, Jost, 1943- II. Frey, Marc, 1963-
111. Title.
JV151.E45 2011
325'.30904-dc22 2011003950
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Contents

List of Tables vii

Acknowledgments viii
List of Abbreviations ix
Notes on Contributors xi
Introduction 1
Jost Diilffer and Marc Frey
1 Intelligence Providers and the Fabric of the Late
Colonial State 11
Martin Thomas
2 Elites and the Construction of the Nation
in Southeast Asia 36
Paul H. Kratoska
3 Dutch Elites and Decolonization 56
Marc Frey
4 Emerging Business Elites in Newly Independent
Indonesia 74
f. Thomas Lindblad
5 Elites as the Least Common Denominator: The
Ambivalent Place of French Schools in Lebanon in the
Process of Decolonization 94
Esther Moller
6 Alternatives to Nationalism in French Africa, 1945-60 110
Frederick Cooper
7 Verwoerdian Apartheid and African Political Elites in
South Africa, 1950-68 138
Christoph Marx
8 Chieftaincies and Chiefs in Northern Namibia:
Intermediaries of Power between Traditionalism,
Modernization, and Democratization 157
Michael Bollig
9 Nehru - the Dilemmas of a Colonial Inheritance 177
Judith M. Brown
v
vi Contents

10 A "Frontal Attack on Irrational Elements": Sekou Toure

and the Management of Elites in Guinea 195
Mairi S. MacDonald
11 julius Nyerere, Tanzanian Elites, and the Project
of African Socialism 216
Andreas Eckert
12 The United States, Decolonization, and the Education
of Third World Elites 241
Corinna R. Unger
13 Building a Socialist Elite? - Khrushchev's Soviet
Union and Elite Formation in India 262
Andreas Hilger
Index 287
List of Tables

13.1 Students from the Third World in Comecon

countries, 1963-6 266
13.2 Students from the Third World in Comecon countries,
by field of study, 1 Jan 1965 267
13.3 Third World and Indian students in the USSR,
1956-66, 1978 274
13.4 Foreign students at the Peoples' University Moscow,
1960-66 274

vii
Acknowledgments

The chapters in this volume are based on a conference held at the

University of Cologne in October 2008. We gratefully acknowledge the
financial support of the German Historical Institutes in Washington,
DC, London, and Paris; the Fritz Thyssen Foundation, Cologne; the
Association of Friends and Supporters of the University of Cologne; and
the Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Bonn. Contributors and editors prof-
ited from discussions among each other and with Elizabeth Buettner,
Ousseynou Faye, Andreas Gestrich, Anja Kruke, Sonke Kunkel, Stephan
Malinowski, Daniel Maul, Daniel Mollenhauer, Sue Onslow, Manjeet
S. Pardesi, Dietmar Rothermund, Indra Sengupta, Benedikt Stuchtey,
Hugues Tertrais, Urban Vahsen, Jakob Vogel, and Nicholas White. We
also thank Eva Helm, Annette Karpp, Maximilian Ruland, Simone
Schulz, and Anna Sperlich for their support. Finally, our thanks go to
Leah Murphy, Elisabeth Stevens, Ivan Simic, and Noah Turner of jacobs
University Bremen who assisted in the preparation of this volume.

viii
List of Abbreviations

AB Archives of the Afrikaner Broederbond

AIU Archives of the Alliance israelite universelle, Paris
AN Archives Nationales, Paris
ANC African National Congress
ANC Assemblee Nationale Constituante
AML Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberte
ANF Archives Nationales Fran\aises
AOF Afrique occidentale fran\aise
AS Archives du Senegal
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BAG Bloc Africain de Guinee
BDEEP British Documents on the End of Empire
BNP Basuto National Party
CAOM Centre des archives d'outre-mer
CGT Conseil General du Travail
co Colonial Office
FCB Fabian Colonial Bureau
FEC Archives of the College fran\ais du Sacre-C~ur, Beirut
FO Foreign Office
ICP Indochinese Communist Party
KVP Katholieke Volkspartij
LAZ Archives of the Lazarists Paris
MAE Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Paris
MCP Malayan Communist Party
MRLA Malayan Races' Liberation Army
NP National Party
OS Organisation Speciale
PAC Pan Africanist Congress
PDG Parti Democratique de la Guinee
PNI Partai Nasional Indonesia
PPA Parti du Peuple Algerien
PRA Parti du Regroupement Africain
RDA Rassemblement Democratique Africain
SHA Service Historique de 1'Armee

ix
x List of Abbreviations

SJA Archives of the school of the scrurs de Saint-Joseph de

1'Apparition, Beirut
SJJ Archives of the Jesuit College de Jamhour
SJV Jesuit Archives, Vanves
SWAPO South West Africa People's Organization
TAA Tanganyika African Association
TANU Tanganyika National African Union
TNA The National Archives, United Kingdom
TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia
UGTAN Union Generale des travailleurs d' Afrique noire
Notes on Contributors

Michael Bollig is Professor of Ethnology at the University of Cologne

and is currently chairing the Cologne African Studies Centre. His
thematic interests are in economic anthropology, political ecology, and
the anthropology of conflict. His regional focus is East and Southern
Africa. His recent publications include Risk Management in a Hazardous
Environment: A Comparative Study of Two Pastoral Societies (New York:
Springer, 2006), The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and
Communication of Armed Violence (with A. Rao and M. Bock, Oxford:
Berghahn, 2007), and African Landscapes: Interdisciplinary Approaches
(with 0. Bubenzer, New York: Springer, 2009).
Judith Brown is Beit Professor of Commonwealth History in the
University of Oxford and a Professorial Fellow of Balliol College. Before
going to Oxford in 1990 she taught in the Universities of Manchester
and Cambridge. Her main interests lie in the history of modern South
Asia and of the contemporary South Asian Diaspora. Among her most
recent books are Windows into the Past: Life Histories and the Historian of
South Asia (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009), Mahatma
Gandhi: The Essential Writings, new edition, Oxford World's Classics
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), Global South Asians: Introducing
the Modern Diaspora (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); and
in 2003 she published with Yale University Press Nehru: A Political Life.
Frederick Cooper is Professor of History at New York University. He is the
author of a trilogy of books on labor and society in East Africa and more
recently of Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French
and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Africa
Since 1940: The Past of the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2002), and Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (New
York: Columbia University Press, 2005). His book co-authored with Jane
Burbank, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference is
currently in press, and he is working on the history of citizenship in
France and French West Africa between 1945 and 1960.
]ost Dtilffer is Professor of International History and of Peace and
Conflict Studies in History at the University of Cologne. His main inter-
ests lie in nineteenth- and twentieth-century history of international

xi
xii Notes on Contributors

relations, nineteenth- and twentieth-century German history, and

the history of peace and conflict resolution. In the textbook series
Grundriss der Geschichte he published Europa im Ost-West-Konflikt
1945-1991 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2004). His most recent book publi-
cations include Frieden stiften. Deeskalations- und Friedenspolitik im 20.
Jahrhundert (Cologne: Bohlau, 2008). He has edited numerous volumes,
among them are Western Integration, German Unification and the Cold
War: The Adenauer Era in Perspective (Special Issue of German Politics and
Sodety, vol. 25.2 [2007], New York: Berghahn Books) and Peace, War and
Gender: Cross-Cultural Perspectives from Antiquity to the Present (ed. with
Robert Frank, Essen: Klartext, 2009).
Andreas Eckert is Professor of African History at the Humboldt
University Berlin and director of the International Research Centre "Work
and Human Life Cycle in Global History" of the Humboldt University.
His main research interests lie in African history (nineteenth and twen-
tieth century), the history of colonialism, globalization, and historiogra-
phy. His most recent books include Herrschen und Verwalten. Afrikanische
Biirokraten, staatliche Ordnung und Politik in Tansania, 1920-1970 (Munich:
Oldenbourg, 2007) and Kolonialismus (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer
Taschenbuch Verlag, 2006). He has edited a number of volumes, the most
recent being Vom Imperialismus zum Empire - Nicht-westliche Perspektiven
auf die Globalisierung (Frankfurt am Main: Edition Suhrkamp, 2009).
Marc Frey is Helmut Schmidt Chair of International History at jacobs
University Bremen. Before going to Bremen in 2006 he taught at
the Universities of Bonn, Miinster, and Cologne. His main interests
lie in the history of late colonialism and decolonization and in the
history of development cooperation. His more recent publications
include The Transformation of Southeast Asia: International Perspectives on
Decolonization (with Ronald W. Pruessen and Tan Tai Yong, Armonk, NY,
and London: M. E. Sharpe, 2003, and Singapore: Singapore University
Press, 2004), Dekolonisierung in Siidostasien. Die Vereinigten Staaten und die
Auflosung der europiiischen Kolonialreiche (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2006), and
"Decolonization and Dutch-American Relations" in Hans Krabbendam,
Cornelis A. Van Minnen, Giles Scott-Smith (eds.), Four Centuries of
Dutch-American Relations 1609-2009 (Amsterdam: Boom; Albany: State
University of New York Press, 2009): 609-20.
Andreas Hilger is Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Helmut Schmidt University
of the German Armed Forces in Hamburg. His interests lie in the his-
tory of international relations, German-Soviet relations, and East-South
 Notes on Contributors xiii

relations during the twentieth century. He is currently completing a

book on Soviet relations with India and Pakistan during the Cold War
era. His publications include Deutsche Kriegsgefangene in der Sowjetunion,
1941-1956. Kriegsgefangenenpolitik, Lageralltag und Erinnerung (Essen:
Klartext, 2000) and, as editor, Die Sowjetunion und die Dritte Welt. UdSSR,
Staatssozialismus und Antikolonialismus im Kalten Krieg, 1945-1991
(Munich: Oldenbourg, 2009).
Paul H. Kratoska is Managing Director of NUS Press at the National
University of Singapore. He is a former editor of the Journal of Southeast
Asian Studies, a regional editor of the International Journal ofAsian Studies,
and a member of Council of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society. His research interests include academic publishing, the history
of food and nutrition in Asia, the Japanese Occupation of Southeast
Asia, and the presentation of Asian history in school textbooks. His more
recent publications include The Japanese Occupation of Malaya: A Social
and Economic History (London: C. Hurst, 1998. Japanese translation,
Tokyo: Kojinsha Publishers, 2005); "The Southeast Asian Rice Trade and
Its Ramifications, 1850-1950" in Food and Globalization, eds. Alexander
Nuetzenadel and Frank Trentmann (Oxford: Berg, 2008); and, as editor,
Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe,
2005) and The Thailand-Burma Railway, 1942-1946: Documents and
Selected Writings (London and New York: Routledge, 2005, six volumes).
J. Thomas Lindblad studied political science and economics at
Columbia University and the University of Amsterdam and received
his PhD from the University of Amsterdam in 1982. Since 1975, he
has been affiliated with Leiden University, since 1987 as Associate
Professor in Economic History and since 1999 as Associate Professor
of Indonesian History. He has been a visiting fellow at the Hankuk
University of Foreign Study in Seoul, the University of Nagoya, and the
Australian National University in Canberra. Major publications include
Between Dayak and Dutch; The Economic History of Southeast Kaliamantan,
1880-1942 (Dordrecht/Providence: Foris, 1988), Foreign Investment in
Southeast Asia in the Twentieth Century (London: Macmillan, 1998),
The Emergence of a National Economy; An Economic History of Indonesia,
1800-2000 (with Howard Dick, Vincent Houben and Thee Kian Wie;
Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2002), and Bridges to New Business;
The Economic Decolonization of Indonesia (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2008).
Mairi S. MacDonald completed her PhD in history at the University of
Toronto in 2009. Her thesis, "The Challenge of Guinean Independence,
xiv Notes on Contributors

1958-1971," considered the impact of sekou Toure's interpretation of

Guinean sovereignty upon evolving international norms concerning
African states. She worked as a lawyer and consultant for a number of
years before returning to academic life, and remains interested in inter-
national development, law, and regulation.
Christoph Marx is Professor of Non-European History at the University
of Duisburg Essen. He is an editor of the journal Periplus: Jahrbuch fUr
Au~ereuropiiische Geschichte and member of the editorial board of the
journal Politikon. His main research interests are the history of apart-
heid in South Africa, the colonial history of Africa, and comparative
approaches to the history of the frontier and to the history of Christian
missionaries. Major publications include Oxwagon Sentinel. Radical
Afrikaner Nationalism and the History of the Ossewabrandwag (Munster:
Ut; Pretoria: Unisa Press, University of South Africa, 2008), Pelze, Gold
und Weihwasser. Handel und Mission in Afrika und Amerika (Darmstadt:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2008), and Geschichte Afrikas, von
1800 bis zur Gegenwart (Paderborn: Schoningh, 2004).
Esther Moeller received her PhD from jacobs University Bremen
for her study on Spaces of Civilizing Mission? The French Schools in
Lebanon 1909-1943. She has received a number of scholarships,
among them a research grant from the German Historical Institute,
Paris, and the German Orient Institute, Beirut. She is currently a
research fellow at the Institute for European History at the University
of Mainz. She has published a number of articles and book chapters,
among them "Die Verhandlung der Dekolonisierung im I<lassenraum:
franzosisch-libanesische Interaktion wahrend der Mandatszeit
1920-1943," Comparativ 21 (4) (2009): 112-28, and "Clientelisme, con-
currence ou cooperation? Les ecoles de la Mission lai'que fran~aise face
aux ecoles Israelites au Liban entre 1909 et 1943," in Jerome Bocquet
(ed.) Judalsme, ecole et mission en Mediterranee al'heure coloniale (de 1880
aux annees 1960) (Rennes: Presses Universitaires, forthcoming).
Martin Thomas is Professor of Colonial History at the University of
Exeter. He has written extensively on the French colonial empire and
decolonization. His most recent book is Empires of Intelligence: Security
Services and Colonial Disorder after 1914, published by the University
of California Press in 2007. He also edited European Decolonization
(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007). He was awarded a Leverhulme Trust Major
Research Fellowship in 2009 to work on a comparative study of colonial
 Notes on Contributors xv

policing in the twentieth century to be published with Cambridge

University Press.
Corinna R. Unger is Professor of European History at Jacobs University
Bremen. She received her PhD in history from the University of Freiburg,
Germany. Her publications include Ostforschung in Westdeutschland: Die
Erforschung des europa ischen Ostens und die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinscha(t,
1945-1975 (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007) and Reise ohne
Wiederkehr? Leben im Exil, 1933-1945 (Darmstadt: Primus Verlag, 2009).
Currently she is working on a project entitled Modernization in Theory
and Practice: American and German Aid to India, 1947-1980. She has
published numerous articles on development aid and modernization
and has co-edited issues of Diplomatic History and the Journal of Modem
European History on those topics.
Introduction
Jost Dülffer and Marc Frey

The dissolution of European empires and the formation of independent

states in Africa and Asia is one of the most important historical proc-
esses of the twentieth century. Decolonization changed the spatial order
of the globe, the imagination of men and women around the world and
the established images of the globe. In South and Southeast Asia, almost
all colonial territories achieved independence within the short time of
one decade. In most of Africa, this process was even shorter. From the
late 1950s until the early 1960s, more than 40 states emerged. However,
the territories of Lusophone Africa, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and
Namibia were not swept by the "winds of change" (Harold Macmillan)
and the tide of history, only to become independent or free from the
chains of apartheid and racial suppression in the 1970s and 1990s,
respectively.
But what is "decolonization"? As both term and concept it has many
meanings, and its origin dates back to the interwar period. This was
a time when nationalism in the "global South" was on the rise and
when colonial regimes, though expanding, came under pressure from
both nationalists in the "global South" and critics of colonialism in the
metropoles. From a legal perspective, decolonization denotes a trans-
fer of sovereignty, whereby the authority over a territory passes from
a foreign, culturally different regime, to indigenous groups who take
over the government under the banner of national self-determination.
But decolonization is more than just a sequence of political events
and a change of status in terms of international law. Decolonization,
as John Darwin and others suggest, not only means the devolution of
sovereignty but also the dissolution of a "global colonial order," which,
since the second half of the nineteenth century, had characterized
relations between European powers and much of the non-European
1
2 Introduction

world. 1 Colonialism meant asymmetrical relations in military, politi-

cal, economic, and cultural terms. These were reinforced by structural
dependencies, racisms, civilizing missions, and cultural arrogance.
Decolonization thus refers to a multifaceted process of the dissolution
of old, colonial, structures, institutions, and ideas, and the development
of new ones over an extended period of time. It can best be described as
a transformative process operating in almost all spheres of life and on
all levels of society.
The field of decolonization studies has undergone significant changes
in recent years. As new approaches have proliferated and research inter-
ests have expanded, it has become one of the most vibrant fields of his-
torical inquiry- always in flux and constantly yielding new perspectives
and surprising insights. It is sufficient here to name but a few of the
fascinating trends visible in contemporary decolonization studies: the
fruitful integration of "orientalist" as well as postmodern approaches
into political, social, economic, and cultural history; the appropria-
tion of "subaltern" perspectives by imperial historians; and a general
understanding of the importance to conceive of decolonization as not
simply a transfer of power. 2 Last but not least, studies of decolonization
are beginning to regard this transformation as not just a phenomenon
pertinent to African and Asian societies. It is now taken as a process
which also affected European societies, in terms of international rela-
tions, domestic politics, identity, and social relations. 3
A key to understanding the transition from the colonial to the post-
colonial is agency. Individuals and social groups shaped decolonization.
Actors struggled and fought for independence, others tried to retard or
suppress it, while still others simply tried to accommodate to the fun-
damental changes in the political, economic, social, and cultural realms
as best as possible. This volume puts agency squarely at the center of
debate. More specifically, the chapters in this volume look at elites,
leaders, and social groups who changed the course of history. Elites are
conceptualized here as social groups who command certain resources in
a given social entity. These can be political support, economic power, or
symbolic resources such as communication or knowledge. 4 Elites were
vital in mediating and driving the complex processes which ultimately
led to decolonization. At the same time there were also elite groups who
lost influence and power or who were deprived of old privileges while
others had to re-invent themselves in new surroundings. Whatever the
fate of these elites, they were instrumental to the decolonization pro-
cess: they were actors who made decolonization possible, even if some
were used as European instruments to "organize" independence in ways
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