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 EAST INDIA COMPANY AND URBAN
ENVIRONMENT IN COLONIAL
SOUTH INDIA

This book makes a pioneering attempt to analyse the linkages between the
rule of East India Company and urban environment in colonial India over
more than a half-century, 1746–1803, through a study of the city of Madras
(present Chennai).
The book traces urban development in colonial South India from a broad
economic history point of view and with a focus on its environmental
dimension, covering the period from the First Carnatic War until the 18th
century by which time the English East India Company had consolidated
its power. It discusses themes such as urban development, infrastructural
development, housing and buildings, city, and suburbs, and development of
land and roads in the colonial period. Using extensive archival resources,
it offers new insights on the various aspects of the shifting urban physical
environment and captures the development of Madras city limits;
road infrastructure, building of paved streets, whitewashed walls, and
compounded houses; establishment of garden houses, use of land resources;
development of masonry bridges by merchants, housing problems, and the
building of Fort House, Garden House, Admiralty House, Pantheon House,
Custom House, etc. in Madras, to describe the impact of colonialism on
urban environment.
An important contribution to the history of urban economics and
environment, this book with its lucid style and rich illustrations will be an
essential read for scholars and researchers of colonial history, modern Indian
history, environmental history, urban environment, urban history, political
economy, urban economic history, Indian history, and South Asian studies.

Moola Atchi Reddy is a former professor of the Department of Economics,

School of Social Science, University of Hyderabad, Telangana, India. Joining
as the first faculty member in 1979, he retired as professor in 2006 after
serving for nearly 27 years. He is a recipient of meritorious medals from the
Department of Economics, Andhra University. He was a research assistant
for the project on the Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. 2, ed.
Dharma Kumar (1982). With a PhD in economic history from the Delhi
School of Economics, he worked at Ford Foundation, New Delhi, and Sri
Venkateswara University (1976–8). He has published two books: Lands and
Tenants in South India: A Study of Nellore District, 1850–1990 (1996), and
Trade and Commerce of the East India Company in India (Madras) (2006).
Several of his articles have been published in refereed journals and edited
books, in addition to over 100 partly published and unpublished papers
read in conferences, seminars, and workshops. His research interests are in
studies of colonial Madras.
EAST INDIA COMPANY
AND URBAN
ENVIRONMENT IN
COLONIAL SOUTH
INDIA
Madras, 1746–1803

Moola Atchi Reddy

 First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Moola Atchi Reddy
The right of Moola Atchi Reddy to be identified as author of this
work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and
78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Disclaimer: Every effort has been made to contact owners of
copyright regarding the visual material reproduced in this book.
Perceived omissions if brought to notice will be rectified in future
printing.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-032-05265-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-10488-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21549-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003215493

Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 DEDICATED TO
PROFESSOR DHARMA KUMAR
 CONTENTS

List of illustrations viii

Abbreviations x
Preface and acknowledgements xi

1 Introduction 1

2 Growth 17

3 Gardens 42

4 Lands 68

5 Roads 106

6 Housing 130

7 Buildings 162

8 Conclusions 194

Appendices 202
Glossary 215
References 217
Index 227

vii
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures
2.1 Madras in the 18th century 19
2.2 Egmore Fort 33
2.3 Remains of Egmore Fort 34
3.1 Patrick Russell 52
4.1 Black Town wall 71
4.2 Black Town wall, Central Gate 72
4.3 Black Town wall, magazine 73
4.4 Sea Gate 89
5.1 Surf boat 126
6.1 Medical school 145
6.2 Clive’s house 149
7.1 Govt. House before repairs 166
7.2 Govt. House after repairs 167
7.3 Leith Castle 183
7.4 Brodie Castle 184
7.5 Monegar Choultry 186

Maps
2.1 Madras, 1768 29
5.1 Madras, end of 18th century 109

Tables
2.1 Measurements of works in feet, Santhome, 1751 26
3.1 Storms and cyclones at Madras, 1746–91 62
3.2 Population density and environment of Madras,
18th century 64
5.1 Male Asylum and road lotteries from 1 Aug. 1795 to
24 Nov. 1799 122

viii
 I L L U S T R AT I O N S

7.1 Cost of renovations to the Fort House, March 1783 164

7.2 Shawmier’s rental account, 1758 170
7.3 Shawmier’s furniture account, 1758 170
7.4 Houses of leading individuals, Fort, 1800 178
7.5 Memorandum of trading vessels, 1796–7 181

Appendices
1 Gardens of Madras 202
2 Garden Houses 204
3 Suburban house sites granted, 1774 206
4 Roads of Madras, 1803 208
5 Streets of Madras, 1803 210
6 Pariars’ Petition, 1779 212

ix
 ABBREVIATIONS

Apdx. Appendix
Apds. Appendices
Brig. Brigadier
Col. Colonel
Ed. Editor
Eds. Editors
EIC East India Company
Govt. Government
Lt. Lieutenant
Masuli Masulipatnam
NE North-east
NW North-west
Pags. Pagodas
Pondy Pondicherry, Puduchery
Rs. Rupees
SE South-east
SW South-west
Trichy Thiruchirapalli

x
 PREFACE AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For the first time, this study brings forth new insights into urban develop-
ment from a broad economic history point of view with a focus on the
environmental dimension of the erstwhile Madras city, the present Chennai,
over more than a half-century – from the mid-18th to the early 19th centu-
ries. It describes in detail various aspects of the shifting physical environment
of Chennai city. The topic is inherently interesting as many of the details of
this history are not widely known. The existing literature on the economic
and environmental history and urban studies did not address the urban envi-
ronment on a wide range of issues, such as the ever-changing pace of urban
development process in the general infrastructural development and hous-
ing, etc. Though several scholars had written about Madras/Chennai city
in general, none of them had addressed it from an environmental point of
view. Given the background, this book is an important contribution to the
environmental history in general and the urban environment in particular.
My modest goal is to show that the development of greenery all around
turned Madras into a pleasant and liveable city. It was chiefly in the form of
gardens, garden houses, and shady trees on the sides of roads and streets. The
story of Madras is being largely told by its widespread gardens, developed
lands, straight roads, paved streets, masonry bridges, white-washed walls,
and compounded houses. The study starts in a ‘breaking period’ of 1746–49
when the English had lost the city to the French. The First Carnatic War
began in that period when the powerful Indian political rivals on each side
were supported by the feuding commercial rivals, the English and the French.
The study ends conveniently with the 18th century (1803), by which time the
English East India Company (EIC) had firmly consolidated its Indian Empire
and emerged as a viable ruling power (Damodaran V et al., 2015).
The study focuses on a small area of the vast economic history of this
period. Only three main aspects are presented in this study of urban environ-
mental economics – gardens, infrastructure, and housing. Greenery domi-
nated the urban environment of this period which was largely shaped by its
infrastructural facilities and housing policies. Houses were the basic units
for all the infrastructural facilities which were environmentally designed.

xi
 P R E FAC E A N D AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S

This work has extensive references to original archival sources, which

strengthen the base and deepen the knowledge of the history of urban eco-
nomics. Certainly, this book would be an important contribution and it will
immensely benefit the scholars of environmental history, urban environmen-
tal studies, and policymakers.
This work is a continuation of my colonial studies. The initial inspiration
was from the late Professors Dharma Kumar and S Ambirajan. I am grateful
to many teachers, scholars, friends, research assistants, and staff of many
libraries and archives all over India for their help and cooperation. Most
of the archival material is from the Tamilnadu Archives and Connemara
National Library, Madras. Professor V Saravanan helped me in material
collection. My wife Aruna Jyotsna, MSc, PhD, my son Bharath V Reddy,
MTech, and my daughter Laxmi Ramya, MSc, assisted me in computerisa-
tion. Computer hardware is maintained by K S Chary. I thank Dr. Shashank
Sekhar Sinha, Antara Ray Chaudhary, and Rimina Mohapatra for bringing
out this Routledge publication. All others are acknowledged in the appropri-
ate places.

xii
 1
INTRODUCTION

Environment
Environmental problems are threatening human survival. The planet is
facing puzzling problems of climate change and other challenges. Many of
them are unprecedented in their nature and effects in human history. The
entire world at present is suffering from serious and frequently occurring
environmental havocs. Increasing emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse
gases are causing atmospheric abnormalities leading to severe droughts,
flash floods, soil aridity, and vast desertification. Destructive tsunamis, trop-
ical typhoons, violent storms, severe hurricanes, inundating and flash floods,
warming oceans, melting ice, receding glaciers,1 glacial bursts triggering
landslides, heat waves, and wildfires are taking heavy tolls on human as well
as non-human life on our planet in recent times. Sea levels are rising due to
the melting of polar ice threatening low level coastal lands and islands. The
depleting ozone is exposing the planet to ultraviolet radiation. More dan-
gerous risks are being posed to humanity by acid rain, ozone depletion, and
greenhouse gases generated in the process of economic development that is
bringing out these terrible changes.2 In the process of this inevitable change,
forests and other finite natural haunts are dwindling fast,3 tilting nature’s
ecological balance and throwing some of the surviving wildlife on human
habitats.4 The environment is shaped by numerous variables.
The environment is influenced mainly by agriculture, hunting, fishing, and
other economic activities directly affecting nature. Ruthless exploitation of
natural resources in the past led to the rapid environmental degradation.
Since the beginning of the modern period in history, the peripheries have
been severely exploited for their raw materials and natural products irre-
spective of their depletion and pollution (see Lynne L and Tietenberg TH,
1984). The British and other Europeans plundered the resources of the non-
European countries (see Scott R, 1824). Their ‘consumers and manufacturers
sucked in resources that were gathered, hunted, fished, mined, and farmed in
a great profusion of extractive and agrarian systems’ (Beinart W and Lotte
H, 2007, p. 2). The commodities included sugar from the Caribbean; furs
and cod from North America; ivory and cocoa from Africa; wool from the
DOI:10.4324/9781003215493-1
1
 INTRODUCTION

sheep of the Antipodes; rubber from SE Asia; gold from South Africa; oil
from the Middle East; and spices, cotton, tea, and timber from India. Com-
modities that could not be produced in Britain were particular objects of
desire in the UK during the early phases of imperial expansion. Simply put,
the main agenda of the European expeditionary movement was to exploit
the natural resources of other lands. Resultantly, new commercial cropping
patterns were developed alongside the exchange of tradable goods (see Raj
KN et al., 1985). Europeans started to explore virgin lands to extract natu-
ral resources, and in the process, the natural environment was significantly
altered and degraded. There had been socio-economic conflicts over the
issues of environmental exploitation since the modes of resource use intro-
duced by the colonials led to the environmental degradation (see Gadgil M
and Guha R, 1992; and also Arnold D and Guha R, 1995). Thus, European
commercial imperialism was inseparable from the history of global environ-
mental degradation and the related changes.5
Global environmental degradation has largely been due to excessive
human interference6 particularly since the dawn of the European adven-
turism of the 16th century. Unprecedented population growth, competitive
commercialisation, exploitative imperialism, destructive industrialisation
depleting useful natural resources, and the fossil fuel revolution are the chief
causes. European imperialism was responsible for the growth of this exces-
sively large-scale exploitation. European science, technology, and capital-
ism had intensified the exploitation of the limited resources of land, water,
and air to satisfy the unlimited human wants.7 India had been one of the
major sufferers. Europeans started direct trade contacts with the Indian sub-
continent from the early 16th century, and trade and commercial activities
continued until the mid-18th century.8 The Portuguese, the Dutch, the Eng-
lish, and later the French had established trade and commercial ventures on
the Indian coasts. The early Portuguese interest was aimed systematically
at a comprehensive control of the spice trade besides their religious activi-
ties. Later, the important export materials consisted of cotton textiles and
yarn, pepper, pulses, wheat, rice, coconut products, ginger, indigo, oil, sandal
wood, benzoin, saltpetre, cloves, corals, diamonds, rubies, seed pearls, wax
and lac, turmeric, tutenage (an alloy of copper, zinc, and iron (see Brown CP,
1903)), besides sheep, cows, horses, and elephants. From that time, Euro-
peans slowly started to exercise control over the subcontinent, exploiting
its rich natural resources for their commercial interests.9 They were blamed
for the past; the exploitation never stopped but had increased.10 Modern
economic development is being blamed as the basis of many of the negative
effects.
The negative effects of the modern economic development are numerous.11
Climatic change, environmental pollution, and frequent pandemics are chief
among them. The latest of such pandemics is the COVID-19 virus12 which
is threatening the well-being of the entire humanity. Being unable to check

2
 INTRODUCTION

nature’s extremely savage fury and control the deadly pandemics, humans
are forced to think deeply about the origin and growth of these destructive
forces. Unlimited encroachment of the forests for mining and agriculture with
unsustainable practices, unchecked urbanisation, and the ever-expanding
infrastructural activities leading to the ecological imbalance and environmen-
tal pollution13 are found by the scientists as the major causes.14 The defensive
purpose cited often is economic development in the form of consumerism and
industrialisation leading to unprecedented urbanisation. Poisonous pollution
of the natural resources and the resulting environmental degradation are the
harmful effects. It is a general finding that most of these evils started with
the European colonisation; the acquisitive greed for natural resources led to
the prevailing unjustifiable world economic system causing immense poverty,
suffering, and environmental degradation (see Brandt W, 1983). It is widely
accepted by scientists and non-scientists alike that greenery alone can sustain-
ably solve most of these problems. Is it economically feasible and possible in
the modern urban agglomerations? There arise many such questions concern-
ing environmental problems. A look into the environmental economic history
would present us the realities and trends.
Environmental economics deals with the problems of earth, air, and water
pollution from an economic perspective; and so does economic history, but
in the past. Environmental issues in the modern times include 1) global
warming;15 2) climatic change; 3) emission of carbon-based gases;16 4) acid
rains; 5) pollution of air, water, and soil;17 6) ozone layer depletion; 7) loss
of biodiversity, including florae and faunae;18 8) disposal of waste, includ-
ing plastic, chemical, industrial, and bio-waste; 9) soil degradation; and 10)
deforestation. In fact, some of them are interrelated as cause and effects;
or, one involves another. For example, pollution of air, water, and soil leads
to acid rains while deforestation causes soil erosion. Global warming and
climatic change are interrelated. Many of these issues were not there dur-
ing the 18th century, and they certainly were not as dreadful as at present.
Environmental ecology was largely affected by the European imperialism
like never before. The imperialists began altering the entire global biology
to serve and suit their own commercial needs.19 The modern world is suffer-
ing from some of these evils many of which revolve around urban centres.
Therefore, the need for studies in environmental economic history is being
felt now more than ever in the modern and fast-changing world facing many
such man-made anomalies.
Environmental history20 largely deals with three broad themes: material,
cultural, and political. The first focuses on the changes in biological and
physical environments and how they have affected human societies. The
second is about representations and images of nature in the arts and letters,
and how they have affected society and nature. The third dwells on how law
and state policy have changed nature and society. The early literature on
environmental history has a consensus that pre-conquest and pre-colonial

3
 INTRODUCTION

societies had ecological harmony (Saravanan V, 2018, p. 3). The past soci-
eties had not altered the natural world as significantly as anything like the
rate and scale that began in the modern colonial era that affected the natural
balance of many countries and continents. The reason was that the people
in the pre-modern period had exploited nature only for their own subsis-
tence. On the other hand, the modern colonial trading companies began
to exploit the finite natural resources on a commercial scale leading to soil
degradation and environmental pollution with undesirable consequences.21
The infinite lust and unlimited greed led to the devastation, disappearance,
and often extinction of the varied florae and faunae from their habitats.22
Thus, environmental degradation turned into a serious problem in the mod-
ern world; but its awareness is said to be of very ancient concern in India.
Yagna rituals23 were intended mostly to keep nature’s gifts fit for the use
of all forms of life, including plants and micro-organisms. But the greed of
humans increased in the course of time. Human population had increased at
the cost of all other species,24 leading to pollution of air and water resulting
in environmental degradation. Some of these problems are dealt with in the
history of environmental economics.
Environmental studies are a recent phenomenon since most of them began
to be felt after the Second World War. Recent studies on environmental his-
tory have concentrated mainly on the 20th century. A few had located them
in the 19th century, while the environmental problems of 18th-century India
are left largely unstudied. Many environmental studies about the modern
period have found urbanisation as the chief contributor to many ecological
and damaging environmental imbalances.25

Urbanisation
Uncontrolled urbanisation is held responsible for many of the environmen-
tal ills. Forests are encroached for development projects, cleared off natural
vegetation and often burnt to make agricultural fields. Green gardens and
topes are cut out. Again, agricultural fields are cleared and dug out so as
to make place for the buildings. This is the direct cost of urbanisation.26
The environment sustains economic development that brings urbanisation.
But urbanisation pollutes the environment. Development and degradation
take place sometimes simultaneously too and with varied effects.27 Most of
the environmental problems being faced by modern cities are attributed to
the unbalanced urbanisation. Urbanisation in general means the movement
of people from rural to urban areas chiefly intended for their economic bet-
terment. Urbanisation is an index of transformation from traditional rural
economies to modern industrial cities leading to concentration of population;
a micro-climate is thereby created that differs from its rural surroundings.
Also, opportunities of employment would be created with a possibility of
super luxurious amenities, and all of them ensuring a high-quality life. It

4
 INTRODUCTION

implies a big economic transition. Urbanisation is a symbol of civilisation

and an index of economic progress. The growth and decline of urban cen-
tres reflect changes in the networks of trade and commerce. The nature
and development of the cities depend chiefly on the progressive nature of
its residents, especially their entrepreneurial abilities and economic status
(see Douglas M and Friedman J, 1998). Urbanisation exercises a perceptible
influence on the process of capital formation, production, and consump-
tion. And with improved opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and
transportation, the rich too are being attracted to the cities aiming at speedy
economic development and progress.
Urbanisation is so closely linked to modern economic development that
one automatically indicates the other. Development leads to increasing
urbanisation through industrialisation, causing the mushrooming of sophis-
ticated urban services in health, education, and finance. A shift from agri-
culture to industry enhances urbanisation. Cities are regarded as the engines
of economic growth. About 70% of global wealth is created in cities whose
residents constitute about 50% of the total population of the world in
the beginning of the 21st century (RCRE, 26th, 2007). Successful cities pro-
vide jobs, quality education, safe and clean neighbourhoods, effective trans-
portation, and welcoming spaces for all types of residents.
Also, modern urbanisation is closely linked to civilisation, industrialisa-
tion, and luxurious lifestyles. It leads to rapid riches and enriched culture.
Simply put, it leads to the increased density of population and concentrated
economic activities. Accordingly, cities are divided into three categories. The
primary cities are engaged mainly in the direct production of human neces-
sities. The secondary cities are devoted primarily to marketing, warehousing,
and distribution. The tertiary cities are economically parasitic on the other
two. They spring up for the sake of education, health, and recreation facili-
ties leading to the residence of the opulent and leisurely classes. The level of
industrialisation and pollution seem to follow the same order. The tertiary
cities are cleaner than industrialised ones and vice versa. Cities are said to be
cleaner, greener, richer, happier, healthier, and smarter than the rural tracts
(see Glaeser E, 2012). Thus, urbanisation is positively associated with riches.
Most of these matters are studied in urban economics.
Urban economics is pivotal in the modern development plans. It is a rela-
tively new field. It studies the special arrangements of households, businesses,
factories, offices, and other infrastructural establishments in the urban areas.
There are a good number of studies on the economics of urbanisation. Urban
spatial structures, sprawl and land use, congestion, housing demand and
policies, tenure choice, public goods and services, pollution, crime, and qual-
ity of life are some of the criteria by which the status of a city is determined.
Many major cities of the world are also the haunting places of crime, poverty
and economic inequalities, and ghettos and slums. They also turned into ‘hot
air spots’ due to ‘island effects’. They are more exposed to infectious diseases

5
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