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 PALGRAVE STUDIES IN
EUROPEAN UNION POLITICS
Series Editors: Michelle Egan, Neill Nugent
and William E. Paterson

Winner of the
2015 Xabier
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Best Thesis in
Political Science

OPPOSING EUROPE IN THE

EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
Rebels and Radicals
in the Chamber
Nathalie Brack
Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics

Series Editors
Michelle Egan
American University
Washington, DC, USA

Neill Nugent
Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK

William E. Paterson
Aston University
Birmingham, UK
Following on the sustained success of the acclaimed European Union
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 Nathalie Brack

Opposing Europe
in the European
Parliament
Rebels and Radicals in the Chamber
Nathalie Brack
Université Libre de Bruxelles
Bruxelles, Belgium

Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics

ISBN 978-1-137-60199-5 ISBN 978-1-137-60201-5 (eBook)
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 Preface and Acknowledgements

These are challenging times for the EU. The term “crisis” has often been
used to describe European integration as the EU is a political system in a
state of quasi-permanent crisis. But the term crisis seems to have become
truly meaningful in the last couple of years. Indeed, the EU is facing a
“polymorphic crisis”. Since 2009, the ongoing economic crisis has called
into question one of the central pillars of the European project’s legiti-
macy, i.e. the economic prosperity it is supposed to bring to its citizens.
More recently, the migration crisis evidences the division of European
leaders and their inability to solve urgent issues, feeding the arguments
of sovereigntist parties for closed borders and returning to the nation
state. The EU is also facing a value crisis with governments in some
countries calling liberal democracy into question and the rise of radical
right parties in several Member states. And of course, Brexit attests to
the rejection of the European project by a (small) majority of British citi-
zens. As one Member state has decided, by referendum, to leave, the EU
is now facing an existential crisis.
Such a period provides fertile ground for the galvanization of opposi-
tion to Europe. And it is not surprising that the 2014 EP elections saw
the unprecedented success of Eurosceptic parties. Euroscepticism has
become a stable of European politics but with the complex crisis, the
integration process has entered a new phase characterized by the main-
streaming of Euroscepticism: anti-EU rhetoric and arguments stressing
the need for major reforms have become commonplace across the conti-
nent, including among mainstream political parties.

v
vi Preface and Acknowledgements

Against this backdrop, these are not only challenging times for the
EU but also very interesting times to be an EU-scholar, especially if one
is interested in opposition to Europe. This research was initiated partly
out of academic interest but mostly out of personal curiosity. I was sur-
prised by the fact that people opposing the European Union would want
to seat in the European Parliament. This seemed to me to be a paradox:
Why are there Eurosceptics in the European chamber? I also was curi-
ous as to how they see their job. How do they deal with the tension
between the Eurosceptic platform they ran on and the tasks and expec-
tations arising from the representative mandate? What are their strate-
gies once inside the institution? Rather than focusing on the sources of
Euroscepticism, I wanted to understand and explain the behaviours of
Eurosceptics in the EP.
Gathering data and meeting more than a hundred Eurosceptic MEPs
were quite time-consuming. But it is, I believe, the best way to fully
grasp the paradoxical situation of these actors. This research provides a
detailed picture of the strategies of Eurosceptics in the EP and the moti-
vation behind their behaviour. But it also provides food for thought on
the implications of their presence at the heart of the EU and on what
these actors can bring to the table to contribute to alleviating the EU’s
democratic deficit.
The research and writing process can sometimes be a lonely path. But
I was lucky to be able to count on the help and support of colleagues
and friends. Over the course of this project, I have received many use-
ful suggestions that have helped me improve the analysis and arguments
presented in the chapters of this book. I would like to extend a special
thanks to Olivier Costa, Jean-Benoit Pilet, Jean-Michel De Waele, Kris
Deschouwer and Simon Usherwood who provided insightful comments
on various parts of this research. This research would not have been pos-
sible without the help of many MEPs, parliamentary assistants and EP
civil servants, who I would like to thank.
This project, at an early stage, was presented during my stay at the
St Antony’s College at the University of Oxford. I would like to thank
the participants of the seminar for their comments and especially Kalypso
Nicolaïdis for her support and useful suggestions.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the series editors for their
careful reading of the manuscript and their many useful suggestions as
 Preface and Acknowledgements vii

well as to Imogen Gordon Clark, Steven Kennedy and the Palgrave team
for their help, patience and work on this book.
I gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance of the Université libre
de Bruxelles which made this research and its publication possible.
Finally, my friends have been a considerable source of encouragement,
notably Katya who I especially thank for her careful reading and helpful
advice as well as Karel, Corinne and Lou for their love and support.

Bruxelles, Belgium Nathalie Brack

 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Political Representation Beyond the Nation State 15

3 Euroscepticism in the European Parliament 51

4 Strategies of Eurosceptic MEPs 83

5 The EP, an “Unrewarding” Location for Eurosceptics? 115

6 Explaining the Roles of Eurosceptic MEPs 147

7 General Conclusion: The Impact of Eurosceptic MEPs 173

Appendix 1: Operationalization of the concept of role 193

Appendix 2: Ordered Logit Model for the Typology

of Roles, all Independent Variables 195

ix
x Contents

Interviews List 197

Bibliography 203

Index 211
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 Abbreviations

AFCO Constitutional Affairs Committee

ALDE Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe
AT Austria
BE Belgium
CY Cyprus
CZ The Czech Republic
DE Germany
DK Denmark
ECR European Conservatives and Reformists
EFD Europe of Freedom and Democracy
EFDD Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy
ENF Europe of Nations and Freedom
EP European Parliament
EPP European’s People Party
ES Spain
EU European Union
EUL/NGL European United Left/Nordic Green Left
FI Finland
FN Front National
FR France
GR Greece
Greens/EFA Greens/European Free Alliance
HR Croatia
HU Hungary
IND/DEM Independence/Democracy
IRL Ireland

xi
xii Abbreviations

IT Italy
ITS Identity, Tradition, Sovereignty
LIBE Civil liberties, Justice and Home affairs committee
LU Luxemburg
MEPs Members of the European Parliament
NA Non-attached members
NL The Netherlands
PES Party of European Socialists
PL Poland
PT Portugal
PVV Party for Freedom
RoP Rules of Procedure
S&D Socialists and Democrats
SE Sweden
UEN Union for Europe of the Nations
UK United Kingdom
UKIP UK Independence Party
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Roles—components and explanatory model 36

Fig. 3.1 Euroscepticism as an axis of opposition 63
Fig. 3.2 Scale of Euroscepticism 65
Fig. 6.1 Country and roles 161

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Eurosceptic MEPs—6th legislature (2004–2009,

opening session) 66
Table 3.2 Eurosceptic MEPs—7th legislature (2009–2014,
opening session) 68
Table 3.3 Eurosceptic MEPs—8th legislature (2014–2019,
opening session) 69
Table 4.1 Activities of MEPs close to the ideal-type of absentee
(July 2004–July 2016) 88
Table 4.2 Activities of MEPs close to the ideal-type of public
orator (July 2004–July 2016) 95
Table 4.3 Activities of MEPs close to the ideal-type of pragmatist
(July 2004–July 2016) 102
Table 4.4 Activities of MEPs close to the ideal-type of participant
(July 2004–July 2016) 110
Table 6.1 Euroscepticism and parliamentary roles 154
Table 6.2 Political experience and parliamentary roles 155
Table 6.3 Seniority and parliamentary roles 157
Table 6.4 EP political group and parliamentary roles 159
Table 6.5 Ballot structure in EU elections and parliamentary roles 164
Table 6.6 National electoral system and parliamentary roles 165
Table 6.7 Ordered logit model for the typology of role, by
significant independent variables 167

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The European Union (EU) is once again in the midst of a storm. After
two decades of treaty revisions which transformed the European pro-
ject into a political system, the EU is now facing a new and multifac-
eted crisis. The ongoing economic crisis, the migration crisis and the
Brexit have reopened debates and provoked tensions on the nature and
“raison d’être” of European integration. With the economic and finan-
cial crisis, it seems that the EU is no longer able to deliver one of the
key promises of the integration process, i.e. prosperity. But more than
that, the EU’s scope of intervention as well as its legitimacy is increas-
ingly challenged. These crises, combined to the current context of demo-
cratic malaise, provide fertile ground for the success of radical, populist
and Eurosceptic parties. In the 2014 European parliament elections, par-
ties such as the UK Independence Party, the National Front in France,
the Alternative For Germany Party, the Five Star movement in Italy
and Syriza in Greece had an unprecedented electoral success (Brack and
Startin 2015; Hobolt 2015, Hobolt and De Vries 2016). More impor-
tantly, the integration has reached a critical point as it has been funda-
mentally called into question with the Brexit referendum on the 23rd of
June 2016. As a small majority of British citizens voted to leave the EU,
they signalled their rejection of the European project and contributed to
a partial disintegration of the EU. Although it is too soon to fully evalu-
ate the consequences of this vote, it undeniably reflects the growing dis-
content of citizens towards the EU and will maintain a momentum for
the Eurosceptic agenda in the coming years.1

© The Author(s) 2018 1

N. Brack, Opposing Europe in the European Parliament,
Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics,
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60201-5_1
2 N. Brack

This opposition to the European project is far from new. European

integration has always been a contested undertaking that has given rise
to fears and oppositions within public opinions and among political
elites (De Wilde 2010; Katz 2008). While these oppositions have long
been seen as marginal or temporary, today there is a wide consensus that
Euroscepticism has become a stable and persistent phenomenon across
Europe (Usherwood and Startin 2013). Indeed, almost every party
system has at least one Eurosceptic party competing in elections, and
Europe has become an issue, if not a divider, in most European politi-
cal arenas (Harmsen 2005, p. 79). These oppositions to the EU soon
became evident in the European parliament (EP). Indeed, if the EP is
often presented as a bastion of Europhiles, there have been Eurosceptic
MEPs since the 1970s who have used it as a forum to actively defend
and promote their points of view. Initially dominated by social-
ists, Christian-democrats and liberals who are universally in favour of
European integration, the EP came to include new political groups rep-
resenting the opposition of an increasing number of segments of the
population. The pro-/anti-Europe axis quickly became particularly sali-
ent and remains even more so today (Hix et al. 2007; Otjes et al. 2016).
Eurosceptics face an interesting paradox: they achieve their great-
est electoral success in European elections, but once elected, they must
operate within an institution and, more generally, a polity they strongly
criticize or even simply oppose (Benedetto 2008). This situation creates
tensions not only for these actors but also for the parliament and the EU.
Their presence inside the EU’s institutions can trigger existential ques-
tions as to how they should carry out their representative mandate. In
addition, the existence of these dissenting voices has implications for the
EP and raises the issue of their impact on the institution, its functioning
and its image. More broadly, the reality of Eurosceptic MEPs questions
the place of political conflict within the EU as a political system which
relies on consensual interactions. One may wonder the extent to which
the persistent presence of Eurosceptics at the heart of the Union is an
asset or a threat to its democratic legitimacy.
Surprisingly, only limited attention has been paid to Euroscepticism
within the EP. Since Taggart’s seminal article (1998), the study of
Euroscepticism has become a well-established interdisciplinary subfield
within European studies (Flood 2002b). This literature seeks, first and
foremost, to understand the nature of the policy positions of political
actors and the factors underlying them. Scholars have highlighted the
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

heterogeneity and complexity of attitudes towards the European project

and the influence of institutional, cultural, ideological and strategic fac-
tors (Hooghe and Marks 2007; Leconte 2010; Mudde 2011; Szczerbiak
and Taggart 2008). Generally, however, they have neglected the analysis
of these actors once elected to parliament (Jensen and Spoon 2010), and
the field of research remains the national political arena. Apart from a
few recent exceptions (Brack 2013; Brack and Costa 2012; Katz 2008;
Lynch et al. 2012; Whitaker and Lynch 2014), scholars ignore the
supranational level, while EP specialists tend to overlook Eurosceptic
MEPs who are considered to be a weak minority with very limited
opportunities within the EU institutional system (Neunreither 1998). As
a result, studies of the strategies of Eurosceptic MEPs’ are still compara-
tively scarce. In other words, Eurosceptic actors are frequently dismissed
from the analysis because they are not numerous, organized or suffi-
ciently integrated in the EP to really influence its deliberation. Their atti-
tudes, motivations and strategies at the supranational level remain largely
understudied.
This book aims to address this gap. Rather than investigating the
source of Euroscepticism, it seeks to understand and explain how
Eurosceptics, once elected to the EP, conceive and carry out their man-
date. More specifically, the ambition of this study is to determine how
these actors cope with the tension between the Eurosceptic platform
on the basis of which they were elected and the tasks and expectations
arising from their European representative mandate. It stresses that the
interaction between the institutional context and individual preferences
is a key to understand these anti-system actors. In addition, this book
also analyses how the institution has managed them. Doing so, it offers
a more general reflexion on the impact of the presence of Eurosceptic
MEPs for the EU and its democratic legitimacy.

1  An Analysis of Eurosceptic Members of the European

Parliament: What for?
Eurosceptics have constituted a persistent minority in the EP for more
than 40 years and, until recently, did not seem to have had a major
impact on European integration. The EU has a remarkable integrationist
track record: it has faced multiple crises, has weathered them and contin-
ued to integrate (Fossum 2015). The institutions, though in persistent
turmoil, are still standing; integration has widened as a result of several
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References 1: Learning outcomes and objectives

Learning Objective 1: Interdisciplinary approaches
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Learning Objective 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
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- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 50: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 53: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 57: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Unit 7: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 60: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 66: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Part 8: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 78: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 79: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 9: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 86: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 87: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 88: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 89: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 10: Literature review and discussion
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 91: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 92: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 95: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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