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 BY THE SAME AUTHOR
Peasant Russia, Civil War:
e Volga Countryside in Revolution, 1917–1921
A People’s Tragedy:
e Russian Revolution, 1891–1924
Interpreting the Russian Revolution:
e Language and Symbols of 1917
(with Boris Kolonitskii)
Natasha’s Dance:
A Cultural History of Russia
e Whisperers:
Private Life in Stalin’s Russia

1
ORLANDO FIGES

Crimea

e Last Crusade

ALLEN LANE
an imprint of
PENGUIN BOOKS

2
 ALLEN LANE
Published by the Penguin Group
Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England
Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, USA
Penguin Group (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 700, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada M4P 2Y3 (a division of Pearson Canada Inc.)
Penguin Ireland, 25 St Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2, Ireland (a division of Penguin Books
Ltd)
Penguin Group (Australia), 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell, Victoria 3124,
Australia
(a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd)
Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi –
110 017, India
Penguin Group (NZ), 67 Apollo Drive, Rosedale, North Shore 0632, New Zealand
(a division of Pearson New Zealand Ltd)
Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue, Rosebank, Johannesburg
2196, South Africa
Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England
www.penguin.com
First published 2010
Copyright © Orlando Figes, 2010
e moral right of the author has been asserted
All rights reserved.
Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise) without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the
above publisher of this book
ISBN: 978-1-84-614500-1

3
For Seren

4
 Contents
List of Plates
List of Illustrations
Note on Dates and Proper Names
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Maps
1. Religious Wars
2. Eastern Questions
3. e Russian Menace
4. e End of Peace in Europe
5. Phoney War
6. First Blood to the Turks
7. Alma
8. Sevastopol in the Autumn
9. Generals January and February
10. Cannon Fodder
11. e Fall of Sevastopol
12. Paris and the New Order
Epilogue: e Crimean War in Myth and Memory
Illustrations
Notes
Select Bibliography
Index

5
 List of Plates
1. Easter at the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, c. 1900. G. Eric and
Edith Matson Photograph Collection, Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division, Washington, DC.
2. Russian barracks for pilgrims, Jerusalem, by B. W. Kilburn, c.
1899. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division,
Washington, DC.
3. An artillery park on the shores of the Bosporus with the
Nusretiye Mosque in the background, 1855, by James Robertson.
National Army Museum, London. Photo: e Bridgeman Art Library.
4. Nicholas I, 1852, by Franz Kruger. Hermitage, St Petersburg.
Photo: e Bridgeman Art Library.
5. Russians Firing at a Statue, 1854, by Gustave Doré, from e Rare
and Extraordinary History of Holy Russia (Histoire pittoresque,
dramatique et caricaturale de la Sainte Russie).
6. ‘Now For It! A Set to between Pam, the Downing Street Pet, and
the Russian Spider’, from Punch, February 1855.
7. ‘Saint Nicholas of Russia’ by John Tenniel, from Punch, 18 March
1854.
8. Turkish troops on the Danube Front, 1854, by Carol Szathmari.
e Royal Collection © 2010, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
9. Group of Coldstream Guards at Scutari, 1854, by James
Robertson. Courtesy Keith Smith.
10. Cavalry camp on the plains of Balaklava, 1855, by Roger Fenton.
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC.
11. Cossack Bay, Balaklava, 1855, by Roger Fenton. Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC.
12. e French base at Kamiesh Bay, 1855, by James Robertson.
Courtesy King’s Own Royal Regiment Museum, Lancaster (Acc. No.

6
KO0438/10).
13. French soldiers standing by a group of Zouaves in the Crimea,
1855, by Roger Fenton. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division, Washington, DC.
14. Tartars at work repairing a road in Balaklava, 1855, by Roger
Fenton. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division,
Washington, DC.
15. ‘How Jack Makes the Turk Useful at Balaclava’, 1855, by John
Leech, from Punch, 1855.
16. View of the Malakoff taken from the Mamelon Vert, 1855, by
James Robertson. Courtesy Manuscripts and Special Collections, e
University of Nottingham (Ref. Ne C 10884/2/19).
17. Interior of the Malakoff tower, Sevastopol, 1855, by James
Robertson. Courtesy Manuscripts and Special Collections, e
University of Nottingham (Ref. Ne C 10884/2/16).
18. Sevastopol, September 1855, by Léon-Eugène Méhédin. Photo: ©
Musée de l’Armée, Paris / Dist. RMN / Christian Moutarde.
19. View of Sevastopol from the Malakoff, 1855, by James Robertson.
Courtesy Manuscripts and Special Collections, e University of
Nottingham (Ref. Ne C 10884/2/7).
20. Sevastopol taken from the Redan, 1855, by James Robertson.
Courtesy Manuscripts and Special Collections, e University of
Nottingham (Ref. Ne C 10884/2/7).
21. e Guards (Crimean War) Memorial, 1885, by John Bell.
London Transport Museum, London.
22. Detail of the Guards (Crimean War) Memorial, including statues
of Florence Nightingale and Sidney Herbert, by John Bell. Photo: © e
Courtauld Institute of Art, London.
23. Queen Victoria’s First Visit to Her Wounded Soldiers, 1856, by
Jerry Barrett. Purchased with help from the National Heritage Memorial

7
Fund and e Art Fund, 1993. © National Portrait Gallery, London.
24. Calling the Roll aer an Engagement, Crimea, 1874, by Elizabeth
ompson, Lady Butler. e Royal Collection © 2010, Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth II.
25. ree Crimean Invalids, 1855, by Joseph Cundall and Robert
Howlett. e Royal Collection © 2010, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
26. Company Sergeant Christy and Sergeant McGifford, Royal
Artillery, 1856, by Joseph Cundall and Robert Howlett. National Army
Museum, London. Photo: e Bridgeman Art Library.
27. e Alma Bridge, Paris, during the ood of 1910. Photo: Roger-
Viollet/ Topfoto.
28. Alexandre Chauvelot’s Malakoff Tower built in 1856, lithograph,
1860, by Lévis. Photo © Ville de Malakoff, Archives Municipales.
29. Fragment of the panorama e Defence of Sevastopol, 1905, by
Franz Alekseevich Roubaud, reconstructed 1950s. Panorama Museum,
Sevastopol. Photo: Jaxpix/Alamy.
30. e Last Survivor of the Russians who fought at Balaclava,
Moscow, 1903, by Dr James Young. National Army Museum, London.
Photo: e Bridgeman Art Library.

8
 List of Illustrations
1. Byans memorial, Hericourt. Photo: Georges Simon/
MemorialGenWeb www.memorial-genweb.org
2. Hagia So a, Istanbul, Turkey, 1855, by James Robertson.
Courtesy Manuscripts and Special Collections, e University of
Nottingham. (Ref. Ne C 10884/2/38)
3. Eight-point star painted by the Fossatis over a whitewashed
mosaic panel, Hagia So a, Istanbul. Photo: P. Iskender, 1932 ©
Dumbarton Oaks, Image Collections and Fieldwork Archives,
Washington, D.C.
4. Louis-Napoléon, 1854. Photo: Roger-Viollet / Topfoto
5. Lord Palmerston, c.1860, by Mayer & Pierson. Photo: Hulton
Archive/Getty Images
6. Leo Tolstoy, 1854. Photo: RIA Novosti / Topfoto
7. Field Marshall Lord Raglan, 1855, by Roger Fenton. Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
8. Hugh Annesley, 1854. Reproduced by permission of e Deputy
Keeper of the Records, Public Record Office of Northern Ireland.
9. Crimean Winter, Crimean Summer, 1850s, by Henry Hope
Crealock © South Lanarkshire Council. Licensor www.scran.ac.uk
10. A cantinière wearing Zouave regiment dress, 1855, by Roger
Fenton. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
Washington
11. Nikolai Pirogov, 1880. Photo: Science Photo Library
12. e Valley of the Shadow of Death, 1855, by Roger Fenton.
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
13. Men of the 68th Regiment in Winter Dress, 1855, by Roger
Fenton. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
Washington, D.C.

9
 14. Tsar Alexander II, c.1870s, by Levitskii. Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
15. Maréchal Pélissier, 1855, by Roger Fenton. Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
16. e British Cemetery at Cathcart’s Hill, 1855, by Roger Fenton.
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
17. François Rochebrune, c.1863, by Walery Rzewuski. Photo:
Biblioteka Narodowa, Warsaw
18. ‘Right Against Wrong’, from Punch, 8 April 1854
19. e Death of Admiral Nakhimov, 1856, by Vasily Timm. Photo:
RIA Novosti / Topfoto

10
 Note on Dates and Proper Names
DATES
From 1700 until 1918 Russia adhered to the Julian calendar, which
ran thirteen days behind the Gregorian calendar in use in Western
Europe. To avoid confusion, all dates in this book are given according to
the Gregorian calendar.
PROPER NAMES
Russian names are spelled in this book according to the standard
(Library of Congress) system of transliteration, but common English
spellings of well-known Russian names (Tsar Alexander, for example)
are retained.

11
 Acknowledgements
e research for this book took place over many years and thanks are
due to a large number of people.
In the early stages of research Helen Rappaport helped me to
compile a working bibliography from the potentially endless list of
books, published memoirs, diaries and letters by participants in the
Crimean War. She also gave invaluable advice on the social history of the
war, sharing information from her own research for No Place for Ladies:
e Untold Story of Women in the Crimean War.
At the National Army Museum in London I am grateful to Alastair
Massie, whose own works, e National Army Museum Book of the
Crimean War: e Untold Stories and A Most Desperate Undertaking: e
British Army in the Crimea, 1854–56, were an inspiration to my own. I
gratefully acknowledge the permission of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth
II to make use of the materials from the Royal Archives, and am
thankful to Sophie Gordon for her advice on the photographs of the
Royal Collection at Windsor. In the Basbanlik Osmanlik Archive in
Istanbul, I was helped by Murat Siviloglu and Melek Maksudoglu, and in
the Russian State Military History Archive in Moscow by Luisa
Khabibulina.
Various people commented on all or sections of the dra – Norman
Stone, Sean Brady, Douglas Austin, Tony Margrave, Mike Hinton, Miles
Taylor, Dominic Lieven and Mark Mazower – and I am grateful to them
all. Douglas Austin and Tony Margrave, in particular, were a mine of
information on various military aspects. anks are also due to Mara
Kozelsky for allowing me to read the typescript of her then un nished
book on the Crimea, to Metin Kunt and Onur Önul for help on Turkish
matters, to Edmund Herzig on Armenian affairs, to Lucy Riall for advice
on Italy, to Joanna Bourke for her thoughts on military psychology, to

12
Antony Beevor for his help on the hussars, to Ross Belson for
background information on the resignation of Sidney Herbert, to Keith
Smith for his generous donation of the extraordinary photograph ‘Old
Scutari and Modern Üsküdar’ by James Robertson, and to Hugh Small,
whose book e Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian
Tsars made me change my mind on many things.
As always, I am indebted to my family, to my wife, Stephanie, and
our daughters, Lydia and Alice, who could never quite believe that I was
writing a war book but indulged my interests nonetheless; to my
wonderfully supportive agent, Deborah Rogers, and her superb team at
Rogers, Coleridge and White, especially Ruth McIntosh, who talks me
through my VAT returns, and to Melanie Jackson in New York; to
Cecilia Mackay for her thoughtful work on the illustrations; to Elizabeth
Stratford for the copy-editing; to Alan Gilliland for the excellent maps;
and above all to my two great editors, Simon Winder at Penguin and
Sara Bershtel at Metropolitan.

13
 Introduction
In the parish church of Witchampton in Dorset there is a memorial
to commemorate ve soldiers from this peaceful little village who fought
and died in the Crimean War. e inscription reads:
DIED IN THE SERVICE OF THEIR COUNTRY.
THEIR BODIES ARE IN THE CRIMEA.
MAY THEIR SOULS REST IN PEACE. MDCCCLIV
In the communal cemetery of Héricourt in south-eastern France,
there is a gravestone with the names of the nine men from the area who
died in the Crimea:

ILS SONT MORTS POUR LA PATRIE.

AMIS, NOUS NOUS REVERRONS UN JOUR
At the base of the memorial somebody has placed two cannonballs,
one with the name of the ‘Malakoff ’ (Malakhov) Bastion, captured by the
French during the siege of Sevastopol, the Russian naval base in the
Crimea, the other with the name ‘Sebastopol’. ousands of French and
British soldiers lie in unmarked and long-neglected graves in the
Crimea.
In Sevastopol itself there are hundreds of memorials, many of them
in the military cemetery (bratskoe kladbishche), one of three huge burial
grounds established by the Russians during the siege, where a staggering
127,583 men killed in the defence of the town lie buried. e officers
have individual graves with their names and regiments but the ordinary
soldiers are buried in mass graves of y or a hundred men. Among the
Russians there are soldiers who had come from Serbia, Bulgaria or
Greece, their co-religionists in the Eastern Church, in response to the
Tsar’s call for the Orthodox to defend their faith.

14
 e Héricourt Memorial
One small plaque, barely visible in the long grass where een sailors
lie underground, commemorates their ‘heroic sacri ce during the
defence of Sevastopol in 1854–5’:
THEY DIED FOR THEIR FATHERLAND,
FOR TSAR AND FOR GOD
Elsewhere in Sevastopol there are ‘eternal ames’ and monuments to
the unknown and uncounted soldiers who died ghting for the town. It
is estimated that a quarter of a million Russian soldiers, sailors and
civilians are buried in mass graves in Sevastopol’s three military
cemeteries.1

15
 Two world wars have obscured the huge scale and enormous human
cost of the Crimean War. Today it seems to us a relatively minor war; it is
almost forgotten, like the plaques and gravestones in those churchyards.
Even in the countries that took part in it (Russia, Britain, France,
Piedmont-Sardinia in Italy and the Ottoman Empire, including those
territories that would later make up Romania and Bulgaria) there are not
many people today who could say what the Crimean War was all about.
But for our ancestors before the First World War the Crimea was the
major con ict of the nineteenth century, the most important war of their
lifetimes, just as the world wars of the twentieth century are the
dominant historical landmarks of our lives.
e losses were immense – at least three-quarters of a million
soldiers killed in battle or lost through illness and disease, two-thirds of
them Russian. e French lost around 100,000 men, the British a small
fraction of that number, about 20,000, because they sent far fewer troops
(98,000 British soldiers and sailors were involved in the Crimea
compared to 310,000 French). But even so, for a small agricultural
community such as Witchampton the loss of ve able-bodied men was
felt as a heavy blow. In the parishes of Whitegate, Aghada and Farsid in
County Cork in Ireland, where the British army recruited heavily, almost
one-third of the male population died in the Crimean War.2
Nobody has counted the civilian casualties: victims of the shelling;
people starved to death in besieged towns; populations devastated by
disease spread by the armies; entire communities wiped out in the
massacres and organized campaigns of ethnic cleansing that
accompanied the ghting in the Caucasus, the Balkans and the Crimea.
is was the rst ‘total war’, a nineteenth-century version of the wars of
our own age, involving civilians and humanitarian crises.
It was also the earliest example of a truly modern war – fought with
new industrial technologies, modern ri es, steamships and railways,

16
novel forms of logistics and communication like the telegraph,
important innovations in military medicine, and war reporters and
photographers directly on the scene. Yet at the same time it was the last
war to be conducted by the old codes of chivalry, with ‘parliamentaries’
and truces in the ghting to clear the dead and wounded from the killing
elds. e early battles in the Crimea, on the River Alma and at
Balaklava, where the famous Charge of the Light Brigade took place,
were not so very different from the sort of ghting that went on during
the Napoleonic Wars. Yet the siege of Sevastopol, the longest and most
crucial phase of the Crimean War, was a precursor of the industrialized
trench warfare of 1914–18. During the eleven and a half months of the
siege, 120 kilometres of trenches were dug by the Russians, the British
and the French; 150 million gunshots and 5 million bombs and shells of
various calibre were exchanged between the two sides.3
e name of the Crimean War does not re ect its global scale and
huge signi cance for Europe, Russia and that area of the world –
stretching from the Balkans to Jerusalem, from Constantinople to the
Caucasus – that came to be de ned by the Eastern Question, the great
international problem posed by the disintegration of the Ottoman
Empire. Perhaps it would be better to adopt the Russian name for the
Crimean War, the ‘Eastern War’ (Vostochnaia voina), which at least has
the merit of connecting it to the Eastern Question, or even the ‘Turco-
Russian War’, the name for it in many Turkish sources, which places it in
the longer-term historical context of centuries of warfare between the
Russians and the Ottomans, although this omits the crucial factor of
Western intervention in the war.
e war began in 1853 between Ottoman and Russian forces in the
Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, the territory of
today’s Romania, and spread to the Caucasus, where the Turks and the
British encouraged and supported the struggle of the Muslim tribes

17
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