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Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page i

ORGANIC FRUIT GROWING

Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page ii
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page iii

ORGANIC FRUIT GROWING

K. Lind, G. Lafer, K. Schloffer, G. Innerhofer and

H. Meister

CABI Publishing
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page iv

CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

CABI Publishing CABI Publishing

CAB International 44 Brattle Street
Wallingford 4th Floor
Oxon OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02138
UK USA

Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056

Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
Web site: www.cabi-publishing.org

© CAB International 2003. All rights reserved. No part of

this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
copyright owners.

Original edition published in German under the title:

Biologischer Obstbau, Copyright © Leopold Stocker Verlag,
Graz, Austria.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British

Library, London, UK.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Biologischer Obstbau. English
Organic fruit growing / K. Lind … [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-85199-640-X (alk. paper)
1. Fruit-culture. 2. Organic farming. I. Lind, K. (Karl) II. Title.
SB357.24.B5613 2003
634--dc21
2003002348

ISBN 0 85199 640 X

Typeset in 10pt Melior by Columns Design Ltd, Reading.

Printed and bound in the UK by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge.
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page v

Contents

Authors xi
Preface xiii
1. Principles of organic fruit growing 1
General principles 1
Legal aspects 2
Conversion of a conventionally run production unit to
organic fruit growing 5
2. Planning and setting up an organic production unit 8
Choice of site: ecological principles 8
Climate 9
Location 15
Soil 18
Biocoenosis 31
Planting stock for an organic orchard 31
Propagation of planting stock in the organic nursery 32
Quality of planting stock 34
Planting systems in organic fruit production 36
Recommended planting distances for different fruit
species 38
3. Choice of rootstocks and cultivars in organic fruit
production 39
Dessert apple production 39
Choice of rootstock 39
Choice of cultivars 42
Description of the most important market cultivars
for organic production 42
Resistant apple cultivars 48

v
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page vi

vi Contents

Dessert pear production 55

Choice of site 55
Choice of rootstock 55
Choice of cultivars 58
Production of stone fruit (cherries and plums) 62
Choice of site 62
Sweet cherries 62
Plums 65
Organic production of small fruit 68
Choice of site 68
Previous crops 70
Fertilizers 71
Planting stock 72
Choice of cultivar 72
Planting times 74
Plant spacing 74
Planting technique 75
Training systems for bush fruits 75
Weed control 78
Irrigation 79
Bees 79
Rain shelter for prevention of diseases 79
Application techniques 80
4. Cultural measures in organic fruit growing 81
Protection of the soil when using machinery 81
Tractor design 81
Tyres 82
Care of the soil 84
Fertilizer application 87
Nutrient requirements of pome fruit orchards 87
Self-regulation of nutrient assimilation 87
Methods for determining nutrient requirements 89
Application of fertilizers in organic fruit production
in practice 91
Important organic fertilizers for fruit growing 93
Organic fertilizers for soil conditioning 93
Organic fertilizers for supplying nutrients 94
Foliar fertilizers in organic fruit growing 96
Thinning in organic fruit growing 97
Timing of thinning 99
Thinning methods 99
Growth-regulating measures in organic fruit growing 105
Pruning 105
Regulation of growth by careful choice of rootstock 109
Regulation of growth by choosing the most suitable
level of the graft union 109
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page vii

Contents vii

Regulation of growth by double-working with an

interstock 110
Regulation of growth by ground cover management 110
Regulation of growth by root pruning 110
Cutting into the trunk with a power saw 111
5. Plant protection 112
Principles and aims of organic plant protection 112
Why is plant protection needed at all? 112
Components of the agricultural ecosystem 113
Human intervention by various methods of plant protection 113
Encouraging biodiversity in orchards 114
Monitoring in the orchard 115
Beneficials, or taking advantage of natural regulation 116
Parasitoids (predatory parasites) 117
The most important predators 118
Essential characteristics in beneficials 124
Major diseases and pests of pome fruit 124
Diseases 124
Pests 137
Major diseases and pests of stone fruit 192
Virus diseases 192
Fungal diseases 193
Animal pests 196
Major diseases and pests of strawberries 198
Diseases 198
Pests 203
Major diseases and pests of raspberries 204
Diseases 204
Pests 206
Major diseases and pests of blackberries 207
Diseases 207
Pests 207
Major diseases and pests of currants and gooseberries 208
Diseases 208
Pests 210
Major diseases and pests of bilberries 211
Pesticides 212
Fungicides 212
Acaricides and insecticides 213
6. Processing 216
General requirements for fruit for processing 216
Ripe fruit 216
Healthy fruit 217
Clean fruit 217
Suitable fruit 217
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page viii

viii Contents

Production of fruit juices 217

Preparing the fruit 217
Crushing the fruit 218
Pre-treatment of the mash 219
Mash transport 220
Juice extraction 220
Production of clear fruit juices 224
Production of naturally cloudy juices 230
Extending the shelf life of fruit juices 232
Bottling of juices 233
Production of dried fuit 234
Pre-treatment of fruit 234
Suitable drying methods 236
Actual drying 236
Production of jellies and jams 237
Keeping quality of jam and jelly 237
Gellability of fruits or fruit juice 238
Gelling agents in common use 239
Gelling test 239
Filling the jars 240
Changes in the jar 240
Cold-stirred jams 241
Production of vinegar 241
Production factors 242
Vinegar production processes 243
Labelling of products 244
Reference to organic 244
Product name 244
Name and address of producer 244
Batch number 244
Net contents 245
Minimum shelf life 245
List of ingredients 245
Storage instructions 245
Additional information 245
7. Marketing of organic products 246
Selling means giving the customer something that is
of benefit to him 246
Customer 247
Competition 247
Own undertaking 247
Analysis of the situation 248
Which aspects should be considered at the outset? 248
Analysis of the initial situation 248
Checklist for analysis of the initial situation 249
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page ix

Contents ix

Checklist for analysis of the strengths and

weaknesses of the business 250
Decision-making process 250
Plans – goals – measures 250
Checklist for direct sellers 251
Checklist of questions to consider at the outset 251
Checklist for profitability 253
How big is the market? 254
Finding the right target groups 254
How do I approach the customer? 255
Marketing strategy 255
Expansion of the business – growth strategy 255
How the buying process interacts with the selling process 257
Sales promotion measures – sales strategy 257
Marketing instruments 258
Product 258
Distribution 260
Communication 262
Price 262
How cost-based pricing works 263
Efficiency review 263
Calculation of the profit from direct marketing 264
Appendix: Annex II to EU Regulation 2092/91 265
(last amended by EU Regulation 1488/97)
A. Permitted fertilizers and soil conditioners 265
General conditions for all products 265
Organic fertilizers 265
Mineral fertilizers 266
Other mineral fertilizers 266
B. Products for plant protection 267
Index 269
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page x
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page xi

Authors

Production: Gottfried Lafer1 Andi Schmid4 Karl Lind1

Fabio Bonisolli2 Hans Josef Weber Karl Waltl6
5

Hans Vijverberg3 Martin Balmer5 Franco Weibel4

Plant protection: Karl Schloffer1 Martin Balmer5

Costanzo Menapace Andi Schmid4
2

Arie Kool3

Processing: Georg Innerhofer7

Rino Minutolo2
Peter van Meurs3

Marketing: Hans Meister1

Bruno Dorigati2
Guus J. van der Horst3

Editor: Karl Lind1

Translator: This English edition was translated from the German by

Alan Leeson.

1Gleisdorf Horticultural College, Styria, Austria

2Agricultural Institute, S. Michele all’Adige, Trento, Italy
3Helicon Training College, Tiel, The Netherlands
4Organic Farming Research Institute, Frick, Switzerland
5State Teaching and Research Centre for Agriculture, Viticulture and Horticulture, Bad

Neuenahr, Ahrweiler, Germany

6Styrian Chamber of Agriculture and Forestry, Graz, Austria
7Haidegg Research Centre for Fruit Growing and Viticulture, Graz, Austria

xi
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page xii
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page xiii

Preface

Organic fruit growing is in vogue. Not only does it make a valuable con-
tribution to the protection of the environment, in areas with predomi-
nantly small farms it also helps to provide jobs in rural communities.
Training (both initial training and further training) is essential for
meeting the increasing demand for organically grown fruit and
processed products made from it. This development has been recognized
by the Commission of the European Communities, which has given
financial support to the LEONARDO pilot project, ‘Developing and test-
ing a teaching module on ecological (organic) horticulture’.
This book, Organic Fruit Growing, is one of the results of this pilot
project. It is intended to be used as a basis for work in schools and col-
leges. It is also intended as a reference book for growers, helping them to
decide whether to switch to organic production, where the promising
market opportunities at the present time are, of course, accompanied by
higher production risks.
Staff of the following schools and institutions collaborated in the
pilot project:
● Agricultural Institute, S. Michele all’Adige, Trento, Italy
● Helicon Training College, Tiel, The Netherlands
● Gleisdorf Horticultural College, Styria, Austria
● Organic Farming Research Institute, Frick, Switzerland
● Haidegg Research Centre for Fruit Growing and Viticulture, Graz,
Austria
● Office of the Styrian Provincial Government, Department of
Agricultural Education, Graz, Austria.
Without the excellent collaboration between all the people involved in
the project, it would have been impossible to produce this book, which
represents an attempt to bring together knowledge and experience of
organic fruit growing from a number of fruit-growing areas of Europe.

xiii
Organic Fruit - Chap 00 Prelims 25/7/03 9:48 Page xiv

xiv Preface

We would like to express our sincere thanks to all who have worked on
this book.
Walter Eccli Karl Lind Jan Gerrits
(Project Coordinator – (Overall Coordinator – (Project Coordinator –
Italy) Austria) The Netherlands)
Organic Fruit - Chap 01 25/7/03 9:52 Page 1

1 Principles of organic fruit growing

General principles

The cultivation of the land and keeping of livestock is bound to have an

impact both on the farmed landscape and the natural environment, and
thus on the living space and recreational area used by the entire popula-
tion. The farmer has an obligation to keep this vital resource healthy and
functional in the long term, thus ensuring the basis for a healthy
lifestyle. Organic farming attempts to fulfil these requirements to the
highest possible standards by avoiding the use of synthetic chemical
aids. By farming in accordance with the inherent laws of nature, i.e.
maintaining energy and nutrient cycles which are as closed as possible,
it aims to cause the least possible disturbance to natural equilibria.
In practical terms this means:
● not using readily soluble mineral fertilizers, but instead making careful
use of farm-produced natural fertilizers (compost, aerated slurry), green
manure, mulches, varied crop rotations and careful tilling of the soil;
● not using herbicides, but instead mechanical or thermal companion
crop control and cover crop management;
● not using synthetic chemical pesticides, but instead increasing soil
health, choosing species which are appropriate for the location,
using resistant varieties and using natural active agents.
In general terms two directions can be distinguished in organic farming:
bio-dynamic and organic-biological.
Bio-dynamic farming, as developed by Dr Rudolf Steiner, a German
philosopher and scientist, was the first movement towards organic farm-
ing. Steiner concerned himself with agricultural questions only at a theo-
retical level. His aim was a self-sufficient form of agriculture which also
takes into account all the quintessential forces operating at the most

© CAB International 2003. Organic Fruit Growing (K. Lind, G. Lafer,

K. Schloffer, G. Innerhofer and H. Meister) 1
Organic Fruit - Chap 01 25/7/03 9:52 Page 2

2 Chapter 1

minute level of existence. Cosmic constellations are also taken into

account in soil cultivation, weed control, and the making and use of
preparations. Insofar as weather conditions allow, the practical applica-
tion of bio-dynamic farming takes account of cosmic forces in sowing,
planting, husbandry and harvesting. In his writings Steiner describes the
production and action of certain plant-based preparations (yarrow,
camomile, nettle, oak bark, dandelion and valerian) which are used in
the production of farm fertilizer. Other preparations are horn manure
and horn silica, which support terrestrial or cosmic force flows.
Particular attention is paid to preventive plant-strengthening measures.
In addition, animals should be kept on the farm.
Organic–biological farming, as propounded by Dr Hans Müller, a
Swiss agrarian politician, did not develop until the 1960s. Müller’s aim
was to make farms as independent as possible of bought-in products. He
tried to give farmers more self-confidence by assigning them responsibil-
ity for public health. A healthy soil is the essential precondition for
healthy plants and animals, and consequently also for healthy human
beings. The aim of fertilization is to nourish the soil organisms. Efforts
are made to minimize the use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides by the
techniques of crop rotation with a wide variety of crops and the creation
of favourable conditions for beneficial species.
The ecological balance is often disturbed by external factors, which
may originate from nature or from man’s activities. An increased inci-
dence of pests can be caused merely by disturbances due to the weather.
Every type of farming thus constitutes interference with ecological rela-
tionships and results in plant protection problems.
Integrated production can be regarded as an intermediate stage
towards organic fruit growing. According to the technical definition,
‘integrated plant protection’ describes a programme which incorporates
all possible methods of plant protection, including chemical methods.
To avoid causing additional disturbance to the ecological balance, chem-
ical measures are only applied if the economic damage threshold is
exceeded. Unfortunately this economic damage threshold is not always
the same as the ecological damage threshold.

Legal aspects

Organic farming is the only method of food production which is gov-

erned by a European Union Regulation: ‘Council Regulation (EEC) No.
2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products and indications
referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs’. This
Regulation covers rules of production, labelling, the inspection system,
and imports from third countries.
The rules on labelling are contained in Article 5: ‘Labelling’. The
labelling and advertising of an agricultural product may legally refer to
organic production methods only where all the requirements of this
Organic Fruit - Chap 01 25/7/03 9:52 Page 3

Principles of organic fruit growing 3

Regulation are met. The following terms in particular are to be used:

‘from organic farming’, ‘from organic agriculture’.
Products which have not yet been packaged for the final consumer
must be provided with a label and must be transported in closed packag-
ing or containers sealed in a manner preventing substitution of the con-
tents. In addition to the usual labelling requirements, the labelling must
also contain the following information: the name and address of the per-
son responsible for the production or preparation of the product, the
name of the product, and the code number of the inspection body.
What is of greatest importance for agricultural production methods,
apart from Article 6, ‘Rules of production’, are the rules contained in the
Annexes.
The ‘Rules of production’ (Article 6) state inter alia that the organic
production method implies that for the production of agricultural prod-
ucts the requirements of Annex I, at least, must be satisfied. Only prod-
ucts composed of substances mentioned in Annexes I and II may be used
as plant protection products, cleaning products, fertilizers or soil condi-
tioners. Moreover, they may be used only insofar as the corresponding
use is authorized in accordance with national provisions. Only seed or
vegetative propagating material produced by the organic production
method may be used. Up until 31 December 2003, conventionally pro-
duced seeds and vegetative propagating material may also be used if it
can be shown to the satisfaction of the inspection body that no organi-
cally propagated material of the appropriate variety is available.
Annex I sets out the principles of organic production, with regard to
plants and plant products at the farm level.
Point 1 deals with the length of the conversion period. The principles set
out in the Regulation must have been applied for at least 2 years
before sowing or, in the case of perennial crops (fruit growing), at
least 3 years before the first harvest. The conversion period can be
extended or reduced in certain cases.
Point 2 covers methods for maintaining or increasing the fertility and
biological activity of the soil. This includes the cultivation of
legumes, green manures or deep-rooting plants, the implementation
of appropriate crop rotation and the incorporation of organic mater-
ial from organically run holdings. Other organic or mineral fertilizers
mentioned in Annex II may be applied only as a complement. Plant-
based preparations (biodynamic preparations) or microorganisms
may be used for composting.
Point 3 lists the permitted measures for controlling pests, diseases and
weeds. They include the choice of appropriate species and varieties,
with an appropriate rotation programme, and the protection of bene-
ficials by the creation of favourable conditions or the release of nat-
ural enemies of pests. Weeds may be controlled only by mechanical
or thermal methods.
In Point 4 even the collection of edible wild plants is regulated.
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