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Violence and Gender in
Africa’s Iberian Colonies
Feminizing the
Portuguese and Spanish Empire,
1950s–1970s
Andreas Stucki
Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial
Studies Series

Series Editors
Richard Drayton
Department of History
King’s College London
London, UK

Saul Dubow
Magdalene College
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK
The Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies series is a collection
of studies on empires in world history and on the societies and cultures
which emerged from colonialism. It includes both transnational, compar-
ative and connective studies, and studies which address where particu-
lar regions or nations participate in global phenomena. While in the past
the series focused on the British Empire and Commonwealth, in its cur-
rent incarnation there is no imperial system, period of human history or
part of the world which lies outside of its compass. While we particularly
welcome the first monographs of young researchers, we also seek major
studies by more senior scholars, and welcome collections of essays with
a strong thematic focus. The series includes work on politics, econom-
ics, culture, literature, science, art, medicine, and war. Our aim is to col-
lect the most exciting new scholarship on world history with an imperial
theme.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/13937
 Andreas Stucki

Violence and Gender

in Africa’s Iberian
Colonies
Feminizing the Portuguese and Spanish Empire,
1950s–1970s
Andreas Stucki
Department of History
University of Bern
Bern, Switzerland

Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series

ISBN 978-3-030-17229-9 ISBN 978-3-030-17230-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17230-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
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maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Z1 Collection/Alamy Stock Photo

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

Research for this book was possible thanks to generous funding from the
Hamburg Foundation for the Advancement of Research and Culture. I
am extremely grateful for the support I received for this project from the
very beginning until its completion. I would also like to thank Richard
Drayton and Saul Dubow for including my work in the Cambridge
Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series and Molly Beck and her team
for their professional assistance during the production process.
During work on this book, a wide array of archivists, librarians, and
scholars—from Hamburg and Bern to Madrid and Lisbon and from
Stanford to Sydney—contributed in myriad ways. Special thanks go to
the host institutions, colleagues, and the friends who provided me with
more than an academic home while doing research in the USA and
writing in Australia. Particularly Joan Ramon Resina (Department of
Iberian and Latin American Cultures at Stanford University) as well as
Chris Hilliard and A. Dirk Moses (both Department of History at the
University of Sydney) as well as all those who gave me a helping hand,
recommended literature and archival collections, or read and offered
critical comments on the research outline and draft chapters. I am espe-
cially grateful to the members of the GRIMSE research group at the
Universitat Pompeu Fabra and to Warwick Anderson, Liz Buettner,
Cláudia Castelo, Rita Almeida de Carvalho, Max Paul Friedman,
Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo, Christoph Kalter, Frauke Kersten, and Sara
Tomkin. I would also like to thank Pierke Bosschieter for preparing the
index for this book.

v
vi    Acknowledgements

Furthermore, I am highly indebted to Francisco Bethencourt

(London) who has supported me and my work throughout the years.
I owe many thanks to Robert Aldrich (Sydney), Flavio Eichmann
(Bern), Matthias Häussler (Frankfurt), Lisa Nalbone (Florida), and
Klaas Voß (The Hague) for their exceptional intellectual generosity and
great friendship. In the same way, I would like to thank Paula Bradish
(Hamburg) for her outstanding support in preparing my work for
publication.
The road from the original project to this book became a fascinating
journey around the globe, one I was able to share with Giovanna Vidal—
thank you!
 Contents

1 Introduction: Feminizing Empire 1

Decolonization and the Iberian Dictatorships 4
Transforming African Women 10
Perspectives: Violence and Gender in Africa’s Iberian Colonies 14

2 Soft Power: Uplifting “Native Women” 21

Between Metropoles and Colonies 25
First Steps and New Opportunities in Africa 28
Toward the Realities in the Colonies 33
Between Oppositions 40
Religion 45
Epilog: Toward Repressive Modernization? 49

3 Violence: Authoritarian Transformations 67

Winning Hearts and Minds 72
Transformative Wars 78
Destruction and Construction 85
Development, the New Name for Peace 91
Epilog: Poor but Fraternal and Generous? 101

4 “African Skin and a Hispanic Heart”? Racism, Ethnic

Relations, Class, and Gender 125
Pride: Luso- and Hispanotropicalism, A Shared Discourse 129

vii
viii    Contents

Racial Prejudice and Cultural Inferiorization 136

Abuse and Sexual Exploitation 144
Epilog: Toward a Subordinated Female Elite 151

5 The “Bargains” of African Women’s Cooperation 167

The Empire: Cooperation and Collaboration 169
The Bargain of “Indigenous” Cooperation 174
Advantages and Disadvantages: Education in the Metropoles 179
Chosen 185
Obligations and Benefits and Their Subversion 190
Epilog: Leaving to Stay 195

6 Staging Iberian Domesticity in Africa 211

Implementing Iberian Domesticity in the Colonies 217
Spreading the Gospel 227
Folklore and Sports 236
Epilog: Nationalizing Through the Taste Buds? 241

7 Empire and Nation-States: Competing Projects 255

Revolutionary Women’s Organizations in Mozambique
and Angola 257
The “Other” Modernizers: FRELIMO and the MPLA 266
Competing Visions of the Nation 272
Epilog: Nationalisms and Nation-States 280

8 Epilog: The Presence of Imperial Pasts 291

Exit Options 292
Contested Citizenship 297
Toward a Cultural Empire? 299

Bibliography 307

Index 341
 About the Author

Andreas Stucki specializes in Iberian and Caribbean history. He is cur-

rently a lecturer and an associate researcher at the History Department
of the University of Bern. From 2017 to 2018, he was a visiting scholar
at the History Department of the University of Sydney and from 2015
to 2016 at the Department of Iberian and Latin American Cultures at
Stanford University. Andreas has published a book on the forced reset-
tlement of civilians in the Cuban Wars of Independence (1868–1898)
in German with Hamburger Edition (2012), which was translated into
Spanish as Las Guerras de Cuba: Violencia y campos de concentración
(Madrid: La Esfera de los Libros, 2017). Further publications include
articles in the Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, the
Journal of Genocide Research, and the Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies
as well as contributions to edited collections.

ix
 Abbreviations

CEPC Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales (Madrid)

COREMO Comité Revolucionário de Moçambique (Mozambque
Revolutionary Committee)
CPLP Comunidade dos Países da Língua Portuguesa (Lusophone
Community)
CSIC Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (Spain)
DGPPA Dirección General de Plazas y Provincias Africanas (Spain)
FNLA Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (National Front for the
Liberation of Angola)
FPLM Forças Populares de Libertação de Moçambique (Popular Forces
for the Liberation of Mozambique)
FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambique Liberation
Front)
IdEA Instituto de Estudios Africanos (Madrid)
IEP Instituto de Estudios Políticos (Madrid)
INCIDI Institut International des Civilisations Différentes (International
Institute of Differing Civilizations)
INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)
ISCSPU Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Política Ultramarina
(Lisbon)
ISEU Instituto Superior de Estudos Ultramarinos (Lisbon)
JIU Junta de Investigações do Ultramar (Portugal)
MFA Movimento das Forças Armadas (Movement of the Armed
Forces)
MNF Movimento Nacional Feminino (Portugal)
MP Mocidade Portuguesa (Portuguese Youth)

xi
xii    Abbreviations

MPF Mocidade Portuguesa Feminina (Portuguese Female Youth)

MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (People’s
Movement for the Liberation of Angola)
MUNGE Movimiento Unificado Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OMA Organização da Mulher Angolana
OMM Organização da Mulher Moçambicana
PAIGC Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde
(African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde)
PIDE/DGS Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado/Direção-Geral de
Segurança (International and State Defense Police/Directorate-
General of Security)
POLISARIO Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro
(POLISARIO Front)
PUNS Partido de Unión Nacional Saharaui
SADR Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
SF Sección Femenina de Falange Española (Spanish Women’s
Section)
UMD Unión Militar Democrática (Military Democratic Union)
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNITA União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (National
Union for the Total Independence of Angola)
WHO World Health Organization
WIDF Women’s International Democratic Federation
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Africa’s Portuguese and Spanish colonies (1950s–1970s) (Map

Peter Palm, Berlin) 5
Fig. 2.1 Giving a warm welcome overseas in Angola in the early
1960s (Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 34
Fig. 3.1 Transforming Western Sahara’s suburbs. Aaiún in the
1960s (Photograph used with permission of the AGA) 81
Fig. 3.2 Bringing education to the desert? Western Sahara, 1974:
“Escuela nómada nº 1” (Photograph used with permission
of the AGA) 98
Fig. 4.1 “Children from the schools of Luanda.” A colorful
and happy crowd, Angola in the 1960s (Photograph used with
permission of the ANTT) 137
Fig. 4.2 Children were often the colonial states’ preferred subjects
to showcase multiracial harmony in the empire. Spanish
Guinea, 1960s (Photograph used with permission of the
AGA) 138
Fig. 6.1 Performing civilization, staging domesticity
in Mozambique: white girls instructing African children
in manners and etiquette. “School lunch for young
indigenous children” in the Centro Extra Escolar
in Lourenço Marques, 1964 (Photograph used
with permission of the ANTT) 217
Fig. 6.2 Celebrating motherhood: Cradle and layette exhibition in
Angola (Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 220
Fig. 6.3 “Tribute to ‘Mother’s Day’” in Mozambique, 1962–1963
(Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 221

xiii
xiv    List of Figures

Fig. 6.4 “Sahrawi at the Valle de los Caídos” near Madrid, July
1963. Sahrawi representatives to the Spanish dictatorship’s
parliament visiting El Escorial and the Francoist memorial
Valle de los Caídos, by invitation of the Spanish government
(Photograph used with permission of the AGA) 223
Fig. 6.5 Performing future tasks as wives and mothers: baby care.
MPF affiliates from the Delegacia Salazar, Angola, 1960s
(Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 228
Fig. 6.6 Stitching and sewing baby clothes in the Centro Social
do Bairro do Tchioco in the suburbs of Sá da Bandeira,
Angola, 1965 (Photograph used with permission
of the ANTT) 229
Fig. 6.7 MPF affiliates preparing a meal in the Centro Extra Escolar
in Lourenço Marques, 1960s (Photograph used
with permission of the ANTT) 230
Fig. 6.8 Portuguese embroidery in Angola, exhibited
at the MPF’s Casa de Trabalhos, Moçâmedes 1964
(Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 232
Fig. 6.9 “Sewing class” in Mossuril, Mozambique, n.d.
(Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 232
Fig. 6.10 Portuguese folklore performed by Angolan MPF affiliates
(Photograph used with permission of the ANTT) 237
Fig. 6.11 “Fernando Po. Special cooking course
in the Escuela Hogar,” Spanish Guinea, 1967
(Photographs used with permission of the AGA) 243
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Feminizing Empire

“All economic, social or intellectual progress must […] be accom-

panied by an evolution in the status of women,” King Leopold III of
Belgium asserted in his opening address to the international conference
on Women’s Rôle in the Development of Tropical and Sub-tropical
Countries in September 1958. More than one hundred delegates from
eighteen countries had followed the International Institute of Differing
Civilizations’ (INCIDI1) call to Brussels to discuss questions related to
cultural, political, economic, and legal aspects of women’s roles in the
remaining colonies and what was increasingly referred to as the Third
World. The congress overlapped with the last few weeks of the Brussels
World’s Fair of 1958. In July of that year, Belgium had to close its
Congolese village, showcasing its purported colonial achievements in the
Belgium Congo at the exhibition, as the hired Congolese artisans left
in protest of what they considered a “human zoo.” Times were chang-
ing, the decolonization of Africa was underway, and the INCIDI had to
adapt its rhetoric to the new circumstances. The meeting was allegedly
“bringing together the elite of different civilizations […] in an atmos-
phere of tolerance, of mutual respect and of desire for the diffusion of
knowledge,” the Institute’s President Henri Depage declared in his wel-
come address.2

© The Author(s) 2019 1

A. Stucki, Violence and Gender in Africa’s Iberian Colonies,
Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17230-5_1
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