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 RF POWER AMPLIFIER BEHAVIORAL MODELING

If you are an engineer or RF designer working with wireless transmitter power

amplifier models, this comprehensive and up-to-date exposition of nonlinear power
amplifier behavioral modeling theory and techniques is an absolute must-have.
Including a detailed treatment of nonlinear impairments, as well as chapters on
memory effects, simulation aspects for implementation in commercial system and
circuit simulators, and model validation, this one-stop reference makes power am-
plifier modeling more accessible by connecting the mathematics with the practical-
ities of RF power amplifier design. Uniquely, the book explains how systematically
to evaluate a model’s accuracy and validity, compares model types, and offers
recommendations as to which model to use in which situation.

DOMINIQUE SCHREURS is Associate Professor in the ESAT-TELEMIC Divi-

sion, Department of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, where
she also gained her Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering in 1997. She is a Senior Member
of the IEEE and was Chair of the IEEE MTT-11 technical committee on microwave
measurements. She was a steering committee member of TARGET (Top Amplifier
Research Groups in European Team).

MÁIRTÍN O’DROMA is Director of the Telecommunications Research Centre,

and Senior Lecturer in the Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering at
the University of Limerick. A Fellow of the IET and Senior Member of the IEEE, he
was a founding partner and steering committee member of TARGET and a section
head of the RF power linearization and amplifier modeling research strand.

ANTHONY A. GOACHER is Research Projects Manager of the Telecommunica-

tions Research Centre, University of Limerick. He has an MBA, is a Member of
the IET, an Associate Member of the Institute of Physics, and has held a senior
management position in the electronics industry for 20 years.

MICHAEL GADRINGER is a Research Assistant in the Institute of Electrical

Measurements and Circuit Design, Vienna University of Technology. He is currently
involved with power amplifier modeling, linearization and device characterization.
The Cambridge RF and Microwave Engineering Series
Series Editor,
Steve C. Cripps

Peter Aaen, Jaime A. Plá, and John Wood, Modeling and Characterization of RF
and Microwave Power FETs
Enrico Rubiola, Phase Noise and Frequency Stability in Oscillators
Dominique Schreurs, Máirtı́n O’Droma, Anthony A. Goacher, and
Michael Gadringer, RF Amplifier Behavioral Modeling
Fan Yang and Yahya Rahmat-Samii, Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures in
Antenna Engineering

Forthcoming
Sorin Voinigescu and Timothy Dickson, High-Frequency Integrated Circuits
Debabani Choudhury, Millimeter Waves for Commercial Applications
J. Stephenson Kenney, RF Power Amplifier Design and Linearization
David B. Leeson, Microwave Systems and Engineering
Stepan Lucyszyn, Advanced RF MEMS
Earl McCune, Practical Digital Wireless Communications Signals
Allen Podell and Sudipto Chakraborty, Practical Radio Design Techniques
Patrick Roblin, Nonlinear RF Circuits and the Large-Signal Network Analyzer
Dominique Schreurs, Microwave Techniques for Microelectronics
John L. B. Walker, Handbook of RF and Microwave Solid-State Power Amplifiers
 RF POWER AMPLIFIER
BEHAVIORAL MODELING

DOMINIQUE SCHREURS
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

M Á I R T Í N O’D R O M A
University of Limerick

A N T H O N Y A. G O A C H E R
University of Limerick

MICHAEL GADRINGER
Vienna University of Technology
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521881739
© Cambridge University Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2008

ISBN-13 978-0-511-43721-2 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-88173-9 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Contents

Notation page vii

Abbreviations viii
Preface xii
1 Overview of power amplifier modelling 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Power amplifier modelling basics 2
1.3 System-level power amplifier models 10
1.4 Circuit-level power amplifier models 20
References 23
2 Properties of behavioural models 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Model-structure-based properties of behavioural models 29
2.3 Application-based model properties 30
2.4 Amplifier-based model properties 35
2.5 Amplifier characterisation 45
References 79
3 Memoryless nonlinear models 86
3.1 Introduction 86
3.2 Overview of memoryless behavioural models 90
3.3 A comparison of behavioural models based on PA performance
prediction 95
3.4 Complex power series model 99
3.5 Saleh models 103
3.6 Modified Saleh models 106
3.7 Fourier series model 116
3.8 Bessel–Fourier models 117
3.9 Hetrakul and Taylor model 125
3.10 Berman and Mahle model 127
3.11 The Wiener expansion 127
3.12 Other comparative considerations 131
References 133

v
vi Contents

4 Nonlinear models with linear memory 136

4.1 Introduction 136
4.2 Two-box models 136
4.3 Three-box models 145
4.4 Parallel-cascade models 157
4.5 Summary 160
References 161
5 Nonlinear models with nonlinear memory 163
5.1 Introduction 163
5.2 Memory polynomial model 164
5.3 Time-delay neural network model 168
5.4 Nonlinear autoregressive moving-average model 174
5.5 Parallel-cascade Wiener model 179
5.6 Volterra-series-based models 184
5.7 State-space-based model 199
References 212
6 Validation and comparison of PA models 215
6.1 Introduction 215
6.2 General-purpose metric 215
6.3 Figures of merit based on real-world test signals 220
References 232
7 Aspects of system simulation 233
7.1 Introduction 233
7.2 Some relevant simulation terminology 234
7.3 Analogue-signal behavioural simulators for wireless
communication systems 235
7.4 Figure of merit considerations in behavioural simulations 238
7.5 Circuit-level techniques 239
7.6 System-level techniques 242
7.7 Digital-logic simulation 244
7.8 Analogue signal – representation, sampling and
processing considerations 244
7.9 Heterogeneous simulation 248
References 250
Appendix A Recent wireless standards 253
Appendix B Authors and contributors 260
Index 262
Notation

f (·) general nonlinear function

fR (·) nonlinear extension of an IIR digital filter
fD (·) nonlinear extension of an FIR digital filter
t continuous-time variable
s discrete-time variable
Ts sampling time
x RF input signal or general input signal
y RF output signal or general output signal
x̃ low-pass complex-envelope input signal
ỹ low-pass complex-envelope output signal
r envelope amplitude
P in-phase component of the envelope amplitude
Q quadrature component of the envelope amplitude
φ envelope phase
ω angular frequency variable
f frequency variable
ω0 carrier angular frequency
f0 carrier frequency
G(·) RF memoryless nonlinearity
g(·) AM–AM nonlinearity
Φ(·) AM–PM nonlinearity
Re real-part operator
Im imaginary-part operator
∗
convolution operator

vii
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 Abbreviations

ACEPR adjacent-channel error power ratio

ACI adjacent-channel interference
ACLR adjacent-channel leakage ratio
ACPR adjacent-channel power ratio
ADC analogue-to-digital converter
ADS advanced design system
AM–AM/AM–PM AM–AM and AM–PM model or characterisation
ANN artificial neural network
APK amplitude phase-shift keying
ARMA autoregressive moving average
AWG arbitrary waveform generator
AWR-MO Applied Microwave Research’s Microwave office
AWR-VSS Applied Microwave Research’s Visual system simulator
BBACS broadband amplifier characterisation setup
BER bit error rate
BF Bessel–Fourier
BPSK binary phase-shift keying
C/I carrier-to-intermodulation ratio
C3IM carrier-to-third-order intermodulation product ratio
CAD computer-aided design
CCDF complementary cumulative density function
CDMA code-division multiple access

viii
Abbreviations list ix

CW continuous-wave
DAC digital-to-analogue converter
DIDO dual-input–dual-output
DSO digital storage oscilloscope
DSP digital signal processing
DTD direct-time domain
DUT device under test
EIRP equivalent isotropic radiated power
ESDA electronic system design automatisation
EVM error-vector magnitude
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FDMA frequency-division multiple access
FET field-effect transistor
FFT fast Fourier transform
FIR finite impulse response
FOBF Fourier-series-optimised Bessel–Fourier
FOM figure of merit
FPGA field-programmable gate array
GSM global system for mobile communications
HB harmonic balance
HEMT high-electron-mobility transistor
IBO input power backoff
IC integrated circuit
IF intermediate-frequency
IFFT inverse fast Fourier transform
IIR infinite impulse response
IMD intermodulation
IMP intermodulation product
IP intercept point
IRF impulse response function
x Abbreviations list

I–Q in-phase–quadrature
IS-95 Interim Standard 95, also known as cdmaOne
LDMOS laterally diffused metal oxide semiconductor
LF low-frequency
LNA low-noise amplifier
LS least-squares
LSNA large-signal network analyser
LTI linear time-invariant
MDL minimum description length
MESFET metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor
MFTD mixed frequency- and time-domain signal representation
MIMO multiple-input–multiple-output
MLP multilayer perceptron
MS modified Saleh
NARMA nonlinear autoregressive moving-average
NARMAX nonlinear autoregressive moving-average with exogenous input
NIM nonlinear integral model
NL nonlinear
NMSE normalised mean-square error
NOCEM non-constant envelope modulated
NPR noise power ratio
NVNA nonlinear vector network analyser
OBO output power backoff
ODE ordinary differential equation
OFDM orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
OOK on/off keying
PA power amplifier
PAE power-added efficiency
PAPR peak to average power ratio
PCB printed circuit board
Abbreviations list xi

PDF probability density function

PL percentage linearisation
PSB Poza–Sarkozy–Berger
PSD power spectral density
QAM quadrature amplitude modulation
QPSK quadrature phase-shift keying
RF radio-frequency
RMS root-mean-square
RRC root-raised cosine
SAW surface acoustic wave
SER symbol-error rate
SISO single-input–single-output
SNR signal-to-noise ratio
SSPA solid-state power amplifier
SVD singular-value decomposition
SWANS scalable wireless ad hoc network simulator
TDNN time-delay neural network
TWTA travelling-wave tube amplifier
UML universal modelling language
VAF variance accounted for
VCO voltage-controlled oscillator
VDHL very high speed IC hardware description language
VIOMAP Volterra input–output map
VNA vector network analyser
VSA vector signal analyser
VSG vector signal generator
WCDMA wideband code-division multiple access
 Preface

This book provides a comprehensive treatment of radio-frequency (RF) nonlinear

power amplifier behavioural modelling, from the fundamental concepts and princi-
ples through to the range of classical and, especially, current modelling techniques.
The continuing rapid growth of wireless communications and radio transmis-
sion systems, with their ever increasing sophistication, complexity and range of
application, has been paralleled by a similar growth in research into all aspects
of electronic components, systems and subsystems. This has given rise to a great
variety of new and advanced technologies catering for the breadth of frequencies,
bandwidths and powers expected in new and existing air interfaces and in the mo-
bile wireless world, for the ever increasing integration of widely differing interfaces
into single devices, with the future likelihood that these devices will be active on
two or more interfaces simultaneously. For radio communications, or simply radio
transmission systems, from the high-frequency (HF) band to the microwave and
millimetrewave bands, the transmitter power amplifier (PA) is a pivotal enabling
component. This is especially apparent when setting and satisfying air-interface
specifications, the correct transmitted signal power levels and tolerable levels of in-
band and out-of-band signal impairment. The reason for this high-profile role of the
PA is that it is the major source of signal distortion and spurious signal generation,
harmonics and intermodulation products. Further, it is by far the greatest energy-
consuming component in the radio transmission path. Depending on the class of
amplifier and the operating conditions dictated by the complexity of the signals to
be amplified, its DC to RF power-conversion efficiency is generally poor, resulting
in power wastage. As this wastage occurs mostly through heat dissipation, in many
situations active extraction of this heat through cooling systems is necessitated,
which in turn leads to further energy costs. Hence, in all applications, a reduction
in energy consumption and heat dissipation through improved efficiency of the PA
is a desired goal.
Technically, this increase in PA efficiency is usually achieved at the expense of
increased nonlinear distortion effects. Predicting, assessing and quantifying the im-
pact of these detrimental effects on the transmitted signals and on the radio environ-
ment requires accurate behavioural models of power amplifiers on the one hand and
a detailed knowledge of the radio characteristics of the environment on the other.
Accurate behavioural models are also required to support research into nonlinear
impairment-reduction techniques (such as power amplifier linearisation), efficiency-
improvement techniques, full transmitter and communications-link system design,
investigation into new wireless communications systems and concepts (with new
signal-modulation techniques and multiple-access techniques) and so forth. For such

xii
 Preface xiii

reasons RF nonlinear PA behavioural modelling has grown to become a topic of

great interest for all those involved in radio communications engineering.
It is hoped that this book will provide RF research engineers in industry, re-
search institutes and centres and also students and academics with a comprehensive
resource covering this major area of wireless communications research and devel-
opment engineering. Although there is an abundant literature covering different
PA behavioural modelling approaches, mainly comprising specialist journals and
books of international conference proceedings, there are few works dedicated to
their comprehensive treatment, analysis and comparison. This work seeks to fill
this gap, bringing together much of the classical treatment and modern conceptual,
theoretical and algorithmic developments.
The theoretical foundations for PA behavioural modelling are presented in Chap-
ter 1. This is a systematic overview and comparative assessment of the various ap-
proaches to RF power amplifier modelling that have received widespread attention
by the scientific community. The chapter is organised into three sections, on power
amplifier modelling basics, system-level power amplifier models and circuit-level
power amplifier models. In the first section, a theoretical foundation to support
the subsequent PA model classification and analysis is set out. The approach is to
address the physical and behavioural modelling strategies and then to classify be-
havioural models as either static or dynamic with varying levels of complexity. Then
a distinction is made between heuristic and systematic approaches, hence creating
a theoretical framework for comparing different behavioural model formats with
respect to their formulation, extraction and, in most cases, predictive capabilities.
Approaches to PA representations for use in system-level simulators are treated
in the second section, on system-level power amplifier models. These are analytic
signal- or complex-envelope-based techniques, leading to single-input–single-output
(SISO) low-pass equivalent models, whose input and output are the complex func-
tions needed to represent the bidimensional nature of amplitude and phase modu-
lation.
The final section of this chapter, on circuit-level power amplifier models, provides
an overview of behavioural models intended for use in conventional PA circuit
simulators. Representing the voltage, current or power-wave signals as real entities,
these models handle the complete, and computationally demanding – because of
the different RF and envelope signal time scales involved – input and output signal
dynamics. This includes taking into account the signals’ harmonic content and,
possibly, the input and output mismatches and other physical circuit features.
Having introduced and classified models according to their mathematical struc-
tures, in Chapter 2 we address other important properties and classifications of
PA behavioural models that, in one way or another, are not directly related to the
models themselves. These arise out of experimentally observed PA characteristics
and may be grouped into those properties derived from the model structure, those
introduced by the PA modelling application and those reflecting the behaviour of
the observed amplifier under a specific excitation. Some of these properties may de-
scribe the same model characteristic but from different perspectives. This is borne
xiv Preface

in mind in the approach to their treatment here, where the aim is to provide an
integrated and complete overview of behavioural models based on their properties.
Models extracted from amplifier measurements are optimised to mimic the be-
haviour seen in these measurements, i.e. to produce identical or near identical be-
havioural results. Such models, therefore, reflect influences of the particular ampli-
fier characterisation technique. Hence an overview of typical amplifier measurement
setups together with a compilation of models extracted by these means completes
the treatment of PA properties in Chapter 2. The next three chapters deal with
memoryless models, models with linear memory and models with nonlinear memory.
In Chapter 3 memoryless nonlinear PA behavioural models are considered; the
most popular models presented and investigated are the complex power series ex-
pansion, the Saleh model in both polar and quadrature forms and the Bessel–Fourier
model. Other models considered are the Fourier model, the Hetrakul and Taylor
model, the Berman and Mahle model and the Wiener-based polynomial models.
Static envelope characteristics, i.e. the static AM–AM and/or AM–PM characteris-
tics, are taken as the basis for defining a behavioural model as memoryless. Some of
these models are well established, though new developments and new insights keep
occurring. An example of the latter, included in this chapter, is the new modified
Saleh model, developed to overcome some particular weaknesses of the original Saleh
model. Generally, a comparative approach is taken in parallel with the exposition
of the models. All are applied to a particular memoryless-equivalent AM–AM and
AM–PM (AM–AM/AM–PM) characterisation of an LDMOS amplifier amplifying
a WCDMA signal, the predicted results being set against actual PA measurements.
Other model aspects addressed comparatively include implementation and com-
plexity, intermodulation product decomposition and harmonic handling capacity.
These conventional nonlinear memoryless models, based on static AM–AM and
AM–PM representations, are frequency independent and can represent with reason-
able accuracy the characteristics of various amplifiers driven by narrowband input
signals. However, if an attempt is made to amplify ‘wideband’ signals, where the
bandwidth of the signal is comparable with the inherent bandwidth of the am-
plifier, a frequency-dependent behaviour will be encountered. This phenomenon is
described as a memory effect. The range of memory effects found in modern PA
systems, especially higher-power solid state PAs, may be classified as linear or non-
linear or as short or long term. Knowing when and where these arise and how
they contribute to system impairment is important to designers and researchers.
Approaches to behavioural modelling that take account of both nonlinearities and
memory effect phenomena is the theme of Chapters 4 and 5.
In Chapter 4 we focus on investigating those nonlinear models that handle mem-
ory effects (i.e. frequency-dependent behaviour) using linear filters. The models
described in this chapter are structurally categorised into two-box, three-box or
parallel-cascade structure. The two-box models presented are the Wiener and Ham-
merstein topologies, while the three-box models include the Poza–Sarkozy–Berger
(PSB) model and the frequency-dependent Saleh model. These models represent
some first attempts at extending the nonlinear static AM–AM models and AM–PM
 Preface xv

models to cover frequency-dependent effects. The parallel-cascade models presented

in this chapter are the Abuelma’atti and polyspectral models. In these a parallel
branch structure is used to describe linear memory.
Significantly more challenging is the behavioural modelling of nonlinear PAs that
exhibit nonlinear memory effects. Chapter 5 contains a comprehensive overview of
this topic and addresses memory polynomial models, the time-delay neural network
(TDNN) model, the nonlinear autoregressive moving-average (NARMA) model, the
parallel-cascade Wiener model, Volterra-series-based models and the state-space-
based model. The simplest modelling approach is the memory polynomial. The
introduction of non-uniform time-delay tabs yields better results. The TDNN and
NARMA approaches are strongly related to the memory polynomial. In the TDNN
model the memoryless nonlinear network is described by an artificial neural net-
work. In the case of the NARMA model, the output depends not only on past values
of the input but also on past values of the output. As stability may be an issue,
criteria are derived to check for this.
Another way to model nonlinear PAs with nonlinear memory effects is by an
extension of the Wiener modelling approach. By introducing parallel branches con-
sisting of a linear time-invariant system followed by a memoryless nonlinear system,
nonlinear memory effects can be modelled adequately. The Volterra-series-based
models form a large class of models with nonlinear memory. The difficulty in com-
putation and optimisation of the fitting parameters, e.g. the Volterra kernels, of
the analytical functions for dynamic (envelope-frequency-dependent) input–output
measured data is addressed. It is notable how the complexity of the model increases
with increasing memory and nonlinearity order, requiring the extraction of an ever
larger number of coefficients to achieve an adequate approximation. A number of
extended approaches have been developed to overcome this intrinsic disadvantage
of Volterra series models. A parallel FIR-based model has a reduced computational
complexity. The Laguerre–Volterra modelling approach yields a reduction in the
number of model parameters. The modified or dynamic Volterra model aims to
handle higher levels of nonlinearity. Finally, a relationship between Volterra models
and TDNN models is presented.
Memory polynomial models and Volterra-series-based models of a lower degree
are only really efficient for systems with memory but which are weakly nonlinear.
However, state-space-based behavioural models are not so restricted. The dynamics
of the PA are determined directly from time-series data, resulting in a compact,
accurate and transportable model. Ways in which multisine excitations can render
model development more efficient are also presented.
In Chapter 6 PA model validation and comparison are addressed. As PAs are in
general complex dynamic systems that combine both short- and long-term memory
effects with nonlinear phenomena, there is quite a variety of ways to approach ques-
tions of validation and comparison. In contrast with linear systems with memory,
where superposition holds, nonlinear dynamical systems must be ‘locally’ modelled
and validated. Therefore, test signals and model comparison criteria must be care-
fully chosen to suit a particular set of typical operating conditions. In this chapter
xvi Preface

we set down suitable figures or characteristics of merit (metrics) for model perfor-
mance comparison in different telecommunication-application contexts. Our overall
goal is to present concepts in ways that will help a reader to formulate suitable
figure(s) of merit for his or her application.
A two-part approach is taken. General figures of merit (FOMs) are presented
first and the main concepts regarding their applicability are explained. Although
most of the proposed metrics can be generalised for sampled and or stochastic sig-
nals, only deterministic continuous-time signals are considered here. Starting from a
general time-domain metric, several variants are proposed each of which is specially
suitable for a certain measurement setup. Then more realistic applications are con-
sidered. Here most of the proposed figures of merit are formulated for sampled (i.e.
discrete-time) signals and in terms of statistical measures such as the covariance
and the power spectral density. The stochastic-process approach is seen as poten-
tially useful for modern measurement instruments and system simulators, where
complex telecommunication standards test signals are usually characterised statis-
tically. This part of Chapter 6 includes an application example in which different
figures of merit are compared.
Simulation tools are widely used for designing and analysing complex communi-
cations systems. In Chapter 7, the final chapter, an overview of aspects of system
simulation is provided with a view to the integration of RF power amplifier be-
havioural models into such simulations. Generally communications simulation tools
seek to describe the operating characteristics and performances of a complete com-
munications link, whether simple or complex, and to mimic through mathematical
models all the analogue and digital signal-processing activities that occur in the real
system, whether at baseband, intermediate or radio frequencies. Here distinctions
between the different forms of simulation encountered in the telecommunication
field are made and examples of the associated software products, mainly commer-
cial ones, are presented. In this way the kind of full-system simulations that are
relevant to the behavioural modelling of RF power amplifiers is highlighted.
Following this, in Section 7.3, a general overview of analogue signal behavioural
simulators for wireless communication systems, together with figure of merit con-
siderations in behavioural simulations, is presented. First, an explanation of some
relevant simulation terminology is given. In this overview distinctions are made be-
tween circuit-level and system-level simulations, both of which are closely allied in
RF PA behavioural modelling. For the former, harmonic-balance simulation, circuit-
envelope simulation and mixed-signal high-frequency IC circuit-level simulation are
briefly described and the respective contexts of their application set out.
As this book’s focus is on system-level simulation, the latter part of Chapter 7 is
concerned mainly with aspects relevant to the theme of the book. These include ana-
logue signal representation, sampling and processing considerations, sampling rate
issues – including multirate sampling – and signal decomposability. Continuous-in-
time and finite-time-window time-domain simulation modes are also considered.
An example of a general schema for the computation flow and execution of a
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