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 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further

Oxford University's objective of excellence
in research, scholarship, and education.
Oxford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto
With offices in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Copyright © 1998, 2008 by Vicki L. Ruiz
First published by Oxford University Press, Inc., 1998
First issued as an Oxford University Press paperback, 1999
Tenth anniversary edition published by Oxford University Press, 2008
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
www. oup. com
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ruiz, Vicki.
From out of the shadows: Mexican women
in twentieth-century America / Vicki L. Ruiz.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-537478-0 (cloth) 978-0-19-537477-3 (pbk.)
1. Mexican American women—History—20th century.
2. Mexican American women—Social conditions.
I. Title E184.M5R86 1997
305.48'86872073—dc21 97-9387
Permission credits:
Sections of Chapter 2 were published as
"Dead Ends or Gold Mines: Using Missionary Records
in Mexican American Women's History, "
Frontiers 12:1 (1991): 35-56.
An earlier draft of Chapter 3 was published as
"The Flapper and the Chaperone: Historical Memory
Among Mexican American Women"
in Seeking Common Ground: A Multidisciplinary Reader
on Immigrant Women in the United States, ed. Donna Gabaccia (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 141-157.
"University Avenue" by Pat Mora
is reprinted with permission from the publisher
of Borders (Houston: Arte Piiblico Press, 1986).

3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
FOR THE STORYTELLERS WHO GAVE ME HISTORY LESSONS AT HOME

In memory of my grandmother
Maria de las Nieves Moya de Ruiz
(1880-1971)

and to my mother
Erminia Pablita Ruiz Mercer
(1921-2001)
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Acknowledgments vii
Introduction yd
1. Border Journeys 3
2. Confronting "America" 33
3. The Flapper and the Chaperone 51
4. With Pickets, Baskets, and Ballots 72
5. La Nueva Chicana: Women and the Movement 99
6. Claiming Public Space 127
Epilogue 147
Afterword 152
Appendix 166
Notes 171
Bibliography 227
Index 249
This page intentionally left blank
 Ac knowledgments

1 HIS book would not be possible without the voices of the indi-
viduals who have shaped this narrative, as historical actors, as
scholars, and as friends. First, I would like to thank the following
people who shared with me their memories: Eusebia Buriel, Ray
Buriel, Elsa Chavez, Carmen Bernal Escobar, Alma Araiza Garcia,
Fernando Garcia, Martha Gonzalez, Dorothy Ray Healey, Lucy
Lucero, Ernest Moreno, Graciela Martinez Moreno, the late Luisa
Moreno, Julia Luna Mount, Concha Ortiz y Pino de Kleven, Maria
del Carmen Romero, my mother Erminia Pablita Ruiz Mercer, and
Jesusita Torres. I thank my former students Carolyn Arredondo, Je-
susita Ponce, Lydia Linares Peake, and David Ybarra for giving me
permission to cite their oral interviews. With generosity and en-
couragement, Sherna Berger Gluck has allowed me to quote from
several volumes of the Rosie the Riveter Revisited oral history col-
lection housed at California State University, Long Beach.
During my ten years of wandering in and out of archives, staff
members have been extraordinarily helpful and I express a deep ap-
preciation to Christine Marin, Special Collections, Arizona State
University; Rose Diaz and Tom Jaehn, Special Collections, Zim-
merman Library, University of New Mexico; Katherine Kane and
Anne Bonds, Colorado Historical Society; Kate Adams, Barker His-
tory Center and Margo Gutierrez, Benson Library, University of
Texas, Austin; and Maria E. Flores, Our Lady of the Lake College,
-^Jviii^ Acknowledgments

San Antonio. I also thank the helpful staff at the Bancroft Library,
University of California, Berkeley; Special Collections, University
of California, Los Angeles; Southern California Library for Social
Studies and Research (especially Sarah Cooper); Coleccion Tloque
Nahuaque, Chicano Studies Library, University of California,
Santa Barbara; Western History Department, Denver Public Li-
brary; Houchen Community Center, El Paso; Daughters of the Re-
public of Texas Library at the Alamo; Labor Archives, University of
Texas, Arlington; DeGroyler Library, Southern Methodist Univer-
sity; University Archives, New Mexico State University; and the
Arizona Historical Society Library, Tucson.
A debt of gratitude goes out to Victor Becerra, Ernie Chavez,
Tom Jaehn, Valerie Matsumoto, Lara Medina, Beatriz Pesquera,
Denise Segura, Howard Shorr, and Devra Weber for taking time
out of their own busy schedules to share with me photographs,
newspaper clippings, and primary materials. Thank you more than
words can convey. I also acknowledge friends and colleagues who
sent me their published and unpublished papers, works that have
unquestionably enriched this manuscript: GabrielaArredondo, Ray
Buriel, Gilbert Cadena, Roberto Calderon, Angel Cervantes, Ernie
Chavez, Marisela Chavez, Kenton Clyrner, Virginia Espino, Jeff
Garcflazo, Ramon Gutierrez, Tom Jaehn, Anne Larson, Margo
McBane, Jesus Malaret, Valerie Matsumoto, Lara Medina, Cynthia
Orozco, Naomi Quinonez, Ada Sosa Riddell, Margaret Rose,
George Sanchez, Marjorie Sanchez-Walker, Denise Segura, Maria
Soldatenko, Richard Street, Quintard Taylor, and Zaragosa Vargas.
I have been blessed with the privilege of working with a num-
ber of highly motivated and talented graduate students, people who
will definitely make a difference in our profession. The UC Davis
cohort includes James Brooks, Kevin Leonard, Jennifer Levine,
Matthew Lasar, Jesus Franscisco Malaret and of course, the "Sis-
terhood"—Kathleen Cairns, Annette Reed Crum, Margaret Jacobs,
Olivia Martinez-Krippner, Alicia Rodriquez-Estrada, and Yolanda
Calderon Wallace. The Claremont crew wants to set the world on
fire: Frank Barajas, Virginia Espino, Matthew Garcia, Timothy
Hodgdon, Alice Horn, Peg Lamphier, Matthew Lasar, Lara Medina,
Marian Perales, Naomi Quinonez, Alicia Rodriquez-Estrada, Ar-
lene Sanchez-Walsh, Emilie Stoltzfus, Mary Ann Villarreal, and
Antonia Villasenor are comitted to the bridging of the academy and
the community. I have also enjoyed my many conversations with
Pat Ash, Philip Castruita, Antonia Garcia, Lee Ann Meyer, Kat
Norman, and Amanda Perez. A special thanks is reserved for
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 Acknowledgments •$ ix $*•

Marisela Chavez, Virginia Espino, Timothy Hodgdon, Peg Lam-

phier, Laura Munoz and Mary Ann Villarreal, my current graduate
students who migrated with me to the "dry heat" of Arizona and to
the daughters of the desert, Luisa Bonillas, Rose Diaz, Christine
Marin, and Jean Reynolds, who have made us all feel so welcome.
Institutional support for this manuscript has come from many
sources. An American Council for Learned Societies Fellowship
proved crucial in the early phases of this project. A UC Davis Hu-
manities Fellowship and a faculty development award allowed me
to take a one-year sabbatical from the classroom. In addition, re-
search funds associated with the Mellon Humanities chair that I
held for three years at The Claremont Graduate School along with
a summer research grant and a Haynes Fellowship provided funds
to complete the archival research and transcribe interviews. I wrote
the last chapters at Arizona State University where I recieved a one
semester sabbatical.
At UC Davis, my undergraduate assistants (both are now attor-
neys) Amagda Perez and Viola Romero were conscientious to a
fault. Thanks also to Ada Arensdorf, Jaime Ruiz and Eve Carr. The
meticulous efforts of Timothy Hodgdon and Matthew Lasar proved
invaluable in preparing the manuscript for publication. Mis com-
paneras/os Angie Chabram-Dernesesian, Ed Escobar, Estelle
Freedman, Gayle Gullett, Gail Martinez, Valerie Matsumoto, Beat-
riz Pesquera, Mary Rothschild, Raquel Salgado Scherr, Howard
Shorr, Susan Tiano, and Clarence Walker helped me regain my fo-
cus during a very difficult time in my life.
At various stages, several individuals offered inspiration and
constructive criticism. I would like to thank Ram6n Gutierrez,
George Lipsitz, Betita Martinez, Valerie Matsumoto, and Howard
Shorr for their careful readings of one or more chapters. The ASU
Women's History Reading Group, particularly Michelle Curran,
Susan Gray, Gayle Gullett, Mary Melcher, and Sybil Thornton,
provided support and insight. Peggy Pascoe and Sarah Deutsch
read the entire manuscript and their comments (and Peggy's line
editing) substantially strengthened the narrative as a whole. Peggy
y Sally—gracias por todo.
I have felt privileged to work with Sheldon Meyer, a steadfast
advocate and extraordinary editor. I also acknowledge the careful
attention paid to this manuscript by Brandon Trissler and Helen
Mules. Their professionalism and enthusiasm eased this overpro-
tective author. Rosemary Wellner, too, deserves thanks for her skills
as a copy editor.
$ X& Acknowledgments

To my knowledge, there are only seventeen Chicanas with

PhDs in history. I am number four. Often we labor alone, subject to
"proving" our research and our very presence in the academy. I
would like to acknowledge the labors of Louise Kerr, Raquel Casas,
Antonia Castaneda, Miroslava Chavez, Deena Gonzalez, Camille
Guerin Gonzales, Lara Medina, Gloria Miranda, Maria Montoya,
Lorena Oropeza, Cynthia Orozco, Emma Perez, Naomi Quinonez,
Yolanda Romero, Elizabeth Salas, and Shirlene Soto and to honor
the legacies of the late Irene Ledesma and Magdalena Mora.
There are no words to describe the appreciation and love I have
for the wonderful men who have graced my life. When I completed
Cannery Women, Cannery Lives, my sons Miguel and Danny were
six and three. In ten years, Miguel has gone from decorating the
door with crayons to enjoying new challenges with a driver's license
and Danny's taste in television has changed from Sesame Street to
MTV. I value their patience and resilience in the midst of our sev-
eral moves. They have borne their absentminded mother with good
humor and much love. My father Robert Mercer passed away into
the next life on November 14, 1995, after a long illness, but I feel
his presence and independent spirit. A man of honor, gentle
strength, with a great capacity for love, Victor Becerra, my hus-
band, changed my life. Victor has contributed in many ways to the
shaping of this work. Listening to scattered passages, reading pre-
liminary drafts, and offering well-placed suggestions, he reminds
me to write from the heart.

v. L. R.
 Introduction

WHEN I was a child, I learned two types of history—the one at

home and the one at school. My mother and grandmother would
regale me with tales of their Colorado girlhoods, stories of village
life, coal mines, strikes, discrimination, and family lore. At school,
scattered references were made to Coronado, Ponce De Le6n, the
Alamo, and Pancho Villa. That was the extent of Latino history.
Bridging the memories told at the table with printed historical nar-
ratives fueled my decision to become a historian.
From Out of the Shadows focuses on the claiming of personal
and public spaces across generations. As farm workers, flappers, la-
bor activists, barrio volunteers, civic leaders, and feminists, Mexi-
can women have made history. Their stories, however, have re-
mained in the shadows.
The introduction to my first book, Cannery Women, Cannery
Lives, refers to the shadowing of Mexican women's experiences.
"Scholarly publications on Mexican American history have usually
relegated women to landscape roles. The reader has a vague aware-
ness of the presence of women, but only as scenery, not as ac-
tors . . . and even their celebrated maternal roles are sketched in
muted shades." Little did I realize that this theme had also res-
onated among earlier chroniclers of Spanish New Mexico, most
notably Cleofas Jaramillo. In 1941, she compiled a collection of
folklore, Sombras del pasado/Shadows of the Past, in which she drew
-$ xii % Introduction

on the collective memories of her Hispano narrators.1 Similarly, I

have drawn on the collective voices of the women who have shaped
and given meaning to my work.
Race, class, and gender have become familiar watchwords,
maybe even a mantra, for social historians, but few get beneath the
surface to explore their intersections in a manner that sheds light
on power and powerlessness, boundaries and voice, hegemony and
agency. This book addresses issues of interpreting voice and locat-
ing power between and within communities, families, and individ-
uals. Women's lives, dreams, and decisions take center stage.
Women of Mexican birth or descent refer to themselves by
many names—Mexicana, Mexican American, and Chicana (to
name just three). Self-identification speaks volumes about re-
gional, generational, and even political orientations. The term
Mexicana typically refers to immigrant women, with Mexican
American signifying U.S. birth. Chicana reflects a political con-
sciousness borne of the Chicano Student Movement, often a gen-
erational marker for those of us coming of age during the 1960s
and 1970s. Chicana/o has also been embraced by our elders and
our children who share in the political ideals of the movement.
Some prefer regional identification, such as Tejana (Texan) or His-
pana (New Mexican). Spanish American is also popular in New
Mexico and Colorado. Latina emphasizes a common bond with all
women of Latin American origin in the United States, a politicized
Pan American identity. Even racial location can be discerned by
whether one favors an Iberian connection (Hispanic) or an indige-
nous past (Mestiza or Xicana).
As part of her stand-up routine, lesbian writer and comic Mon-
ica Palacios articulates her multiple identities as follows:

When I was born

I was of Mexican-American persuasion
Then I became Chicana
Then I was Latina
Then I was Hispanic
Then I was a Third World member
(my mom loved that)
Then I was a woman of color
Now I'm just an Amway dealer
And my life is happening.2

Literary critic Alicia Arrizon refers to Palacios's work as "one of

challenge where humor becomes the tool of reconstructing ways of
 Introduction 4 xiii fc-

understanding the self." Poet and novelist Alicia Caspar de Alba

conveys the image of the Chicana writer as "the curandera (medi-
cine woman) or the bruja (witch) . . . the keeper of culture, the
keeper of memories."3 The exploration of identities, the conserva-
tion and creation of cultural practices and traditions, and the re-
construction of historical narratives are not without political in-
tent. In the words of Sonia Saldivar-Hull, "The Chicana feminist
looks to her history . . . to learn how to transform the present."4
Focusing on the twentieth century and the Southwest, this
book surveys women's border journeys not solely in terms of travel,
but of internal migration—creating, accommodating, resisting, and
transforming the physical and psychological environs of their
"new" lives in the United States. These are journeys of survival, re-
siliency, and community. They reveal, to quote Chandra Talpade
Mohanty, "the material politics of everyday life, especially the daily
life struggles of poor people—those written out of history."5
In 1900, Mexican women had a long history of settlement in
what is now the Southwest extending back to the Coronado expe-
dition of 1540. Historians, including Ram6n Gutierrez, Albert Hur-
tado, Antonia Castaneda, Angelina Veyna, and James Brooks, have
reconstructed the ideological beliefs and physical realities of
women in the Spanish Borderlands across racial and social loca-
tions from the elite gentry to indentured servants.6 In addition,
Deena Gonzdlez, Sarah Deutsch, and Lisbeth Haas carefully delin-
eate the lives of Spanish-speaking women in the decades following
the U.S.—Mexican War (1846—1848), and, in placing women at the
center of Hispano communities, they document gendered strate-
gies for resisting political, economic, and cultural conquests.7
Women's kin and friend networks—their comadres—were indis-
pensable for both personal and cultural survival. Comadres helping
comadres, neighbors joining neighbors—such patterns of mutual
assistance run through the histories of Mexican—American women.
Through mutual assistance and collective action, Mexican
women have sought to exercise control over their lives at home,
work, and neighborhood. From 'Out of the Shadows opens with
"Border Journeys," a chapter that details the ways in which Mexi-
canas claimed places, albeit economically precarious ones, for
themselves and their families in the United States while "Con-
fronting America" records their efforts to create their own cultural
spaces. "The Flapper and the Chaperone" focuses on the second
generation taking the first individual steps toward sexual autonomy.
"With Pickets, Baskets, and Ballots" surveys women's activist paths
in labor unions, voluntary associations, and political affiliations.
-^1 xiv £- Introduction

"La Nueva Chicana" examines the development of a distinctive

Chicana feminist consciousness, a consciousness with historical
antecedents predating the 1960s and with contemporary lessons
for bridging individual and community empowerment. Covering
the period 1970 to the present, "Claiming Public Space" empha-
sizes the ways in which women from the shop floor to city hall have
made a difference in their lives and their neighbors' lives through
community-based organizations.
It is important to situate this thread of public and private
spaces that appears in each chapter. One's positionality inside the
home, the community, and the workplace cannot be separated into
neat categories of analysis. The feminist edifice of separate spheres
need not apply as "the inextricable nature of family life and wage
work in the histories of immigrant wives and women of color
explodes the false oppositions at the heart of the public/private
dichotomy."8 Integration, rather than separation, provides a more
illuminating construct in exploring the dynamics of Mexicana/Chi-
cana work and family roles.
A second thread running through the narrative is that of cul-
tural coalescence. Immigrants and their children pick, borrow,
retain, and create distinctive cultural forms. There is not a single
hermetic Mexican or Mexican—American culture, but rather per-
meable cultures rooted in generation, gender, and region, class, and
personal experience. People navigate across cultural boundaries
and consciously make decisions with regard to the production of
culture. However, bear in mind that people of color have not had
unlimited choice. Race and gender prejudice and discrimination
with their accompanying social, political, and economic segmen-
tation have constrained aspirations, expectations, and decision-
making.
Though filtered through the lens of time and mediated by the
interviewer, oral histories shed much light on individual stories of
resistance, resilience, and creativity. It is not a question of "giving"
voice, but of providing the space for people to express their
thoughts and feelings in their words and on their own terms. Re-
claiming, contextualizing, and interpreting their memories remain
the historians' tasks. I am reminded of a line in William Blake's
"Auguries of Innocence"—"To see a world in a grain of sand."9
In September 1992, the Los Angeles Times carried an article
about a Mexican—American photo exhibit at the El Monte Histori-
cal Museum.10 Though a bit timid behind the wheel, I gathered my
courage and ventured onto the freeway bound for El Monte. Inside
 Introduction -f xv %

the museum, I lingered over pictures documenting migrant life: the

Hick's Camp barrio, family weddings, and neighborhood celebra-
tions. I even noticed images of the popular Long Beach nightspot,
the Cinderella Ballroom, where couples posed in front of paper
moons and caboose facades. An elderly Mexicana entered the room
accompanied by her daughter. She began to identify all the people
and landmarks captured in the photographs. I introduced myself
and tagged along as she graciously gave us a history lesson. A few
months later, Jesusita Torres invited me into her home and shared
with me her remarkable story of survival and hope. Her journey un-
folds here.
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Border Journeys

1 HE year is 1923; the place G6mez Palacios in the Mexican state

of Durango. As she watched her mother pack a few belongings, Je-
susita Torres was warned by her mother Pasquala Esparza not to
tell anyone of their plans. Several days later, shortly before noon,
Pasquala would sneak out of the family home with nine-year-old Je-
susita at her side and one-month-old Raquel in her arms. They
headed for the train station with Pasquala surveying the landscape
for any signs of her husband or his relations. She must have
breathed a sigh of relief as the train began its journey to Ciudad
Juarez from which she hoped to cross with her children into the
United States.
During our interview seventy years later, Senora Torres would
reveal that her stepfather (Raquel's biological father) in G6mez
Palacios had been cruel to her and her mother. In her words:

I never knew my father. . . . My mother got married again and

things did not work. I guess they did not work because I was mis-
treated, too, you know. So I think the only way she could get away
was to come over here.1

Pasquala intended to stay in Juarez until she had the money to se-
cure passports for herself and her children. Her destination was El
Monte, California, to live with her married sister.
.
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