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 P O L I T I C A L TH I N K E R S

VO LU M E I
Hegel
Raymond Plant

V O L U M E II
Edmund Burke: His Political Philosophy
Frank O ’Gorman

V O L U M E III
Karl Marx
Michael Evans

V O L U M E IV
John Stuart Mill
R. J. Halliday

VO LU M E V
Bentham
James Steintrager

VO LU M E VI
Hobbes: Morals and Politics
D. D. Raphael

V O L U M E V II
Aristotle
John B. Morrall

V O L U M E V III
John Locke
Geraint Parry

V O L U M E IX
Plato
Robert W. Hall
 PO LIT ICA L
THINKERS

General Editor: Geraint Parry

Volume I

Hegel

Raymond Plant

RRoutledge
Taylor &. Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
 First published 1973
by Routledge
This edition published 2004 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0 X 1 4 4RN
Simultaneously published in the U SA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York N Y 10016
Transferred to Digital Printing 2007
Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group

© 1973 Routledge
Typeset in Times by Keystroke, Jacaranda Lodge, Wolverhampton
All rights reserved. No part o f this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-415-32682-6 (set)
ISBN 10: 0^115-32683^1 (Volume I) (hbk)
ISBN 10: 0^115^13680-X (pbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0^115-32683^1 (hbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0^115^13680-9 (pbk)

Publisher’s note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality o f this reprint
but points out that some imperfections in the original book may be apparent
H EGEL
Raymond Plant
Lecturer in Philosophy in
the University o f Manchester

RRoutledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
This page intentionally left blank
 To
JOHN NIEMEYER FINDLAY, M A , P H D , FBA
Professor Emeritus in the University of London,
Clark Professor of Moral and Metaphysical
Philosophy in the University of Yale
Ye are as aliens in a foreign land.
St. Peter

Le deracinement est loin la plus dangereuse maladie

des societes humaines.
Simone Weil

Ich ist in der Welt zu Hause, wenn es sie kennt> noch

mehr, wenn es sie begriffen hat.
Hegel

To live in Main Street is, if one lives in the right spirit,

to inhabit the holy city.
Findlay
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 PREFACE

This book arose out of a certain dissatisfaction with existing com­

mentaries on Hegel’s work. Generally speaking, such commentaries
fall into two types. There is the general study of his central meta­
physical doctrines and of his logical writings; but studies of this sort,
such as Findlay’s Hegel: A Re-examination, tend not to be concerned
with a close analysis of how these general metaphysical views work
themselves out in his writings on particular modes of human experience,
for example, the artistic, the political and the religious. At the other
extreme there are works, particularly on his political thinking, which
tend to minimize or discount the metaphysical dimension to his
theorizing. A work in this latter genre would be Pelcynski’s essays
introducing Hegel's Political Writings. The present book attempts to
steer a via media between both of these trends. It will seek to deal in
some detail with his central metaphysical doctrines, arguing that an
understanding of these doctrines is, pace Pelcynski, a necessary condi­
tion of making his writings on political philosophy intelligible.
It was originally my intention to preface this approach with a short
account of Hegel’s development, but as time passed I realized that such
an approach was inadequate. It seemed to me to be more and more
clear in the light of my understanding of his development that this
period is really the key to the understanding of his mature philosophical
work and that in addition, taken this way, one could not easily dis­
tinguish a metaphysical centre of his work, a philosophical core, which
was then worked out in detail in his discussion of various modes of
experience, the political among them. On the contrary, it seems to me
that the whole of Hegel’s work has a social and a political dimension,
that his whole philosophy, and not merely his explicit political and
social theorizing, was a response to certain problems in social and
political experience. In order to make this thesis plausible, however,
it has been necessary for me to deal in some detail with his early
unpublished writings in which these social and political problems are
diagnosed, and which constitute the problematic of his later, mature
philosophical achievement. In arguing this thesis about the social and
political commitment of Hegel’s whole work I do not intend to be
taken as providing some kind of support for Karl Popper’s interpretation
o f Hegel in the second volume of The Open Society and Its Enemies.
Conceived in ignorance of Hegel’s philosophical achievements, Popper’s
discussion of Hegel is a conjecture which has had in the past, and also
receives in the present work, a firm refutation. The refutation supplied
9
 PREFACE

in this book is, however, implicit— to have explicitly challenged

Popper at each point in his interpretation would have credited his
work with more importance than it deserves.
Although I am critical of existing commentaries on Hegel this does
not mean that I have not learned a great deal from them. As the dedica­
tion of this volume implies, I am immensely in the debt of John Findlay.
However much he will disapprove of the line taken in this book, he
cannot avoid the responsibility of having interested me in Hegel and
his work during a memorable series of lectures in 1965-6 when I was
a student of his in the University of London. I am also deeply grateful
to my friend and colleague, Geraint Parry, both for inviting me to write
the book in the first place and for constant advice and encouragement.
The historical, contextual approach adopted in the book owes a good
deal to the stimulation of Professor W. H. Greenleaf and to Dr Bikhu
Parekh, both of whom were involved in the supervision of my graduate
work. Earlier drafts of chapters of this book were given as lectures to
members of the Socialist Society in the University of Manchester, and
I must record with thanks the interest and the tolerance which they
showed in the lectures given both by and on a philosopher neither of
whom they could have found very congenial. M y erstwhile colleagues,
Anthony Arblaster and Dick Atkinson, attended these talks and made
helpful comments on them. Finally, my thanks are due to my parents
who enabled me to have an academic career, and to my wife, Katherine,
and son Nicholas, for providing an environment within which I could
happily pursue my work.

R A YMOND P L A N T
November 1971

10
 CONTENTS

Preface page 9
A Note on the Texts 13
I Civil Theology and Political Culture 15
II Folk Religion and Political Analysis 41
hi Towards a Perspective on History 56
iv Towards the Transfiguration of Politics 76
v A System of Philosophical Politics 97
vi Reason, Reconciliation and Community 124
v ii Philosophy and Community 147
vm Transfiguration or Mystification? 184
Bibliography 207
Index 211
This page intentionally left blank
 A Note on the Texts

Quotations in the book are given with reference to the Glockner Jubilee
edition of Hegel’s works, departures from this practice being necessi­
tated by the non-inclusion of relevant material in the Glockner edition,
particularly Hegels Theologische Jugendschriften, ed. Nohl; Jenenser
Logiky Metaphysik und Naturphilosophic, ed. Lasson; Jenenser Real-
philosophie I and II, ed. Hoffmeister; and Schriften zur Politik und
Rechtsphilosophie, ed. Lasson.
The following English translations have been consulted and in many
cases used: T . M. Knox’s translations of pieces in the Theologische
Jugendschriften in HegeVs Early Theological Writings; Knox’s version
of Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts in HegeVs Philosophy of Right',
Knox’s translations of pieces from Schriften zur Politik und Rechts­
philosophie in HegeVs Political Writings. My use of such translations is
here very gratefully acknowledged, but is not explicitly acknowledged
in the text. Knox’s translations of the early theological writings and of
Hegel’s occasional writings on politics do not cover all the material
which I have wanted to use and to sometimes cite the German original
and at other times the English translation would have made already
long footnotes extremely tedious and complicated. Passages quoted in
the book may, however, be easily identified in the English translations:
references to the Theologische Jugendschriften may be identified in
Knox’s HegeVs Early Theological Writings because Knox includes in
the body of the English text the pagination of the German original and
the same is true of his version of parts of Schriften zur Politik und
Rechtsphilosophie in HegeVs Political Writings. M y references to the
Glockner edition of Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts includes a
citation of the paragraphs which are the same as in the Hoffmeister
edition of the work on which Knox based his HegeVs Philosophy of
Right and are included in his translation.
A select bibliography is included at the end of the volume and full
details of the works cited in this note may be found there.

13
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter I

Civil Theology
and Political Culture
Our ideal should not be a contracted, disembodied, abstract being;
our ideal should be the complete and whole man, perfectly and fu lly
formed.
L. Feuerbach

Hegel’s mature philosophy can best be seen in terms of a response to

certain problems in social, political and religious experience which
preoccupied him for most of his life.1 His initial inability to provide
solutions to these problems drove him on to philosophy and to a
particular conception of the purpose and character of philosophical
explanation. In a letter to Schelling, his friend from their days at the
Tubingen theological seminary, Hegel himself drew attention to the
way in which his later philosophical position had grown out of earlier,
non-philosophical concerns:
In my scientific development which began with the more subordinate
needs of men, I was compelled towards philosophy and the ideal of
my youth had been transformed into a system.2
Any attempt to come to terms with Hegel’s mature thought must start
with an endeavour to understand the problems which it was designed
to solve and out of which it grew. Initially this attempt requires a
discussion of the early, that is to say pre-1800 writings of Hegel, the
unsatisfactory nature of which led him on to philosophy. In advocating
this approach to the understanding of Hegel’s mature thought, I must
record my profound disagreement with Professor J. N. Findlay who, in
1 For a general rationale of this kind of approach to a text see R. G. Colling-
wood, A n Autobiography, Oxford 1939, p. 31.
2 Letter to Schelling 11 November 1800 in Briefe von und an Hegel, ed.
J. Hoffmeister, Hamburg 1952, vol. i, p. 59.

15
 HEGEL

a foreword to a recently published translation of HegeVs Philosophy

of Nature, argues that:
It may further be wondered whether the concern for Hegel’s develop­
ment displayed by many writers is not excessive, especially in a
situation where there are no reliable and detailed commentaries on
his major works. The Juvenilia of Berne and Frankfurt have been
studied exhaustively for many decades and have thrown very little
light on any major notion or position in Hegel’s mature works.. . . It
is even arguable that the great interest in these Juvenilia stems in
part from an unwillingness to scale the main crags of his system: men
linger in the foothills because they resemble the lower-lying terri­
tories in which they feel best able to work and think.1
The whole argument of the present book will be contrary to the one
advanced in this passage. It is intended to show that Hegel’s mature
philosophical position can be greatly illuminated by considering his
own acknowledged failure to solve the problems in both personal and
social experience which he diagnosed in his early writings. Conse­
quently an attempt will be made in this chapter to reconstruct the
original Problemstellungen of Hegel’s philosophical work in order to
make clear why, in the words of the letter cited above, the ideals of his
youth had to be transformed into a philosophical system. To describe
and to characterize these ideals must, of course, be a precondition of
providing answers to the questions of why and how the transformation
occurred.
Hegel’s early ideals were part and parcel of the thought and feeling
of his own and, indeed, the preceding generation of German intel­
lectuals. To restore the harmony of personal experience and to recreate
a closely-knit community in contrast to the fragmentation of the person
and growing social divisions were the two basic aims of members of this
generation. Goethe, Schiller, Hamann, Holderlin and Hegel shared
these two basic and interrelated ideals, although of course they differed
profoundly both in the ways in which they articulated these ideals and
in the paths by which they thought their respective visions might be
achieved. Three factors led to these values being central to the con­
sciousness of sensitive minds in Germany during this period. In the
first place the idealization of Greek and particularly Athenian social and
political experience gave them a paradigm in terms of which they could
look at what they regarded, in contrast, to be the enervated and atrophied
nature of personal and social relationships in the Germany and, indeed,
1 Hegel's Philosophy o f Nature, translated by A. V. Miller, Oxford 1970,
pp. vii-viii.
16
 C I V I L T HE O L O G Y AND P O L I T I C A L CULTURE

the Europe of their time. Secondly, the depressed social, political and
religious situation in Germany gave them an impetus to look for and to
hold fast to ideals which were very far removed from the reality of
German life. Finally the growing awareness, after about 1770, of the
great works of the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment on the
development of commercial society, particularly the writings of Adam
Ferguson1 and John Millar,2 provided them with a diagnosis of the
contemporary malaise and made them more aware than they had been
previously of the difficulties involved in any attempt to reform the
situation. These factors, crucial to the Gedankenwelt into which Hegel
was born, will now be discussed more thoroughly.

Greece: Social and Personal Harmony

The idealization of Greek social and personal experience was very
largely the result of the quite remarkable influence which the researches
of Winckelmann into Greek art, particularly sculpture, had on German
intellectuals during this period. From their understanding of Greek
culture men of the generation prior to that of Hegel, the Sturmer and
Dranger, developed the idea and vision of a harmoniously developed
individual, and they took this vision to be a paradigm of human
development and achievement, a model of Humanitat. From a distance
of 2,000 years, the inhabitants of Athens appeared to them to have
developed their human capacities and powers in an all-round way, in a
fashion which was denied to the contemporary European. As Schiller
pointed out in his sixth letter in his Asthetische Briefe, the Greek
individual was able in a quite remarkable way to encompass the totality
o f experience available to him in his society and, as it were, to represent
the whole ethos of his society in his own person. In the letter he asks:
Why was it that the individual Greek was able to be the representative

1 Particularly A n Essay on the History o f C iv il Society, by Adam Ferguson,

Edinburgh 1767, translated into German by Christoph Garve in 1768. Herder,
as will be shown below, was very much influenced by Ferguson, as was Schiller
(see Schtllery by R. Buchwald, Wiesbaden 1953, pp. 213, 217,224). Rosenkranz,
in Hegels Leben, Berlin 1841, p. 14, says that Hegel read the works of Ferguson
while a schoolboy in Stuttgart and traces of his influence may be seen in the
essay ‘tTber einige Charakteristische Unterschiede der Alten Dichter’ (1788)
discussed below, pp. 28 ff. Ferguson was in his original way a disciple of
Shaftesbury who in his Charakteristiks (1711) stressed the need for a person to
develop the harmony of his powers. Shaftesbury also influenced Schiller: see
‘ Schiller and Shaftesbury’ in Publications o f The English Goethe Society, 1935.
2 John Millar’s The Origin o f the Distinction o f Ranks was translated into
German in 1772 and was reviewed by Herder in Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeige
1772 in Samtliche Werke, ed. Suphan, Berlin 1877-1913, vol. 5, pp. 452-6.

17
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