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Christianity
and
Political
Philosophy
Christianity
and
Political
Philosophy
Frederick D. Wilhelmsen
With a new introduction by Michael Henry

S3 Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group

L O N D O N AND NEW YORK

Originally published in 1978 by University of Georgia Press

Published 2014 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business

New material this edition copyright © 2014 by Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2013016611

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wilhelmsen, Frederick D.
Christianity and political philosophy / Frederick D .
Wilhelmsen ; with a new introduction by Michael Henry.
pages cm
Originally published: Athens : University of Georgia
Press, 1978.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4128-5279-1
1. Political science. 2. Christianity and politics. I . Title.
JA74.W53 2013
261.7--dc23
2013016611

ISBN 13: 978-1-4128-5279-1 (pbk)

 To My Daughter
ALEXANDRA
"Heart speaks to Heart"
Testimonium Animae,
Naturaliter Christianae
Tertullian, De Testimoniae Animae
 CONTENTS

Introduction to the Transaction Edition, ix

by Michael Henry
Acknowledgments xxv
Introduction 1
1 The Limits of Natural Law 10
2 Cicero and the Politics of the Public Orthodoxy
(with Willmoore Kendall) 25
3 The Problem of Political Power and the
Forces of Darkness 60
4 Sir John Fortescue and the English Tradition 111
5 Donoso Cortes and the Meaning of Political Power 139
6 The Natural Law Tradition and the American
Political Experience 174
7 Eric Voegelin and the Chrisitan Tradition 193
8 Jaffa, the School of Strauss, and the
Chrisitan Tradition 209
Notes 227
Index 241
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO THE
TRANSACTION EDITION
Michael Henry

"Politics which sin against the laws of

being do so at their own peril. "
—Frederick Wilhelmsen

Frederick Wilhelmsen begins this book with the observation

that "the advent of political philosophy in a society usually
augurs ill for the society itself. Political wisdom drifts into
the public forum as do leaves in early autumn portending the
coming ofwinter." So, in the fourth century B.C., toward the
end of the existence of Athens as a democratic self-governing
polis and in the wake of the execution of Socrates, Plato de­
veloped political philosophy to illuminate where the polis had
gone wrong in its misunderstanding of goodness, justice, the
order of Being, and the nature of human happiness. Although
he provided a detailed diagnosis of the problems caused by the
failure to comprehend Being and even outlined prophylactic
measures, his efforts failed to prevent the demise of Athens
and the recurrences of political disorders.
Similarly, as the problems endemic to modern secularist
and socialist ideologies in the United States began to be ad¬
dressed in detail in the middle of the twentieth century by
conservative political philosophers, conservative in the sense
that their goal was to preserve and renew the awareness of
the true foundations of order, the advent of such political
wisdom might be taken as a sign that American political

[ix]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

society is entering senescence. These conservative thinkers

chose different parts of the tradition to serve as the ground of
opposition to modern Western liberalism. Some, for instance,
focused on the type of conservatism represented by Edmund
Burke, while others went back to Plato and Aristotle, and still
others insisted that only Christianity could provide a solid
foundation for political order. Wilhelmsen was of the third
persuasion, a man who based his political conservatism on
his Catholic faith and the metaphysics ofThomasAquinas,
both anathema to secularists, and found that this convergence
of political with theological and metaphysical conservatism
served him well in his efforts to comprehend the disorders of
our time. Wilhelmsen, who not only came of age during the
ideological Second World War and the ensuing ideological
Cold War but also observed the intensifying disorders in
American political society and the problems developing in
the Catholic Church after the Second Vatican Council, saw
his role as a philosopher as threefold: warning of crises, diag¬
nosing their causes, and preserving the tradition of Christian
political reflection that could serve to illuminate even if not
prevent or cure the crises. And he was a man not only of the
theoretical but also at times of the practical: he led a public
protest against the decision by the Eisenhower administration
not to assist the Hungarians during their revolt against Soviet
domination in 1956 and was a speaker at the first rally against
abortion in the United States in June of 1970.
While some conservative thinkers started out as liberals,
socialists, Communists, or atheists before undergoing a
conversion, Wilhelmsen seems to have been a deeply and
unswervingly committed traditionalist Catholic all of his
1
life. He was born in Detroit on May 18, 1923 and grew up
in the "Catholic ghetto" where his parish church served as a
constant reminder of Transcendence and the need to live for
something higher than the purely immanent concerns of the

[x]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

world around him. By the 1930s, he was reading Catholic

authors such as John Cardinal Newman, Gilbert Keith Ches­
terton, Hilaire Belloc (who would be the subject of his own
first book), and Christopher Dawson. He began his college
education at the University of Detroit, a Jesuit school, but
World War I I intervened. After serving three years as an Army
medic, he resumed his studies at another Jesuit institution, the
University of San Francisco, from which he graduated with
a degree in philosophy in 1947. For his master's degree he
studied at the University of Notre Dame under Yves Simon
and Monsignor Gerald Phelan, themselves both students of
Jacques Maritain, and wrote his thesis on St.ThomasAquinas.
He later pursued doctoral studies at the University of Madrid
where he wrote his dissertation on Maritain and was awarded
his Ph.D. in 1958. In the early 1960s he taught philosophy
at the University of Navarra before taking up the position
of professor of philosophy and politics at the University of
Dallas, where he taught until his death in 1996. He also
taught at various times as a visiting professor at the (Jesuit)
Universities of Al-Hikma in Baghdad and Santa Clara in
California, as well as in Argentina, Mexico, Nicaragua, and
Peru. He lectured widely and for many years taught in Spain
during the summer and for three years in Rome at the Rome
campus of the University of Dallas. By all accounts he was a
superb teacher whose students were devoted to him, many
of them even changing not only their majors but also their
career plans to philosophy.
Wilhelmsen's list of publications over some forty-two
years is extensive: seventeen books, thirteen as author, two as
co-author, and two as editor, and more than two hundred and
fifty articles. Also four of his books were written in Spanish,
as were many of his published essays. In 1966, along with L.
Brent Bozell (who with William F. Buckley had previously
founded National Review),ThomasMolnar, and John Wisner,

[xi]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

Wilhelmsen co-founded the monthly magazine Triumph to be

the voice of Catholic traditionalism that would counter the
secularism infiltrating the Church. During the next decade he
published some thirty-three articles in it, while also publishing
in other conservative journals, such as The Thomist and The
Wanderer. His articles also appeared in numerous magazines
and journals including, among others, Modern Age, The In­
tercollegiate Review,TheSaturday Evening Post, and National
Review. He was, in short, a prolific scholar and writer.
Therefore, Wilhelmsen approached the writing of the essays
in Christianity and Political Philosophy as a devout Catholic,
a lifelong Thomist, and a defender of metaphysics, all three
very much at odds with the modern Zeitgeist. Christianity and
Political Philosophy has as its specific purpose the renewal of
awareness of the true order of existence, in contrast to the
completely secular view of politics that has become ascendant
in Western society. The essays collected and knitted togeth¬
er here deal with various problems that have arisen in the
Western political tradition and the Christian and specifically
Thomistic solutions proposed by various thinkers. Simply
put, Wilhelmsen's diagnosis is that Western civilization is
in serious decline because of its loss, or abandonment, of
Christianity and Christian metaphysics. As Ernest L. Fortin
commented in his review of the first edition, "F. Wilhelmsen's
essay is a vibrant plea for the restoration of political theory to
2
its long-lost Christian dimension." That the West has "lost
the sense of transcendence" has produced aflatteningof exis¬
tence in our modern secular society, now become moribund
precisely because it succeeded in supplanting Christian faith
and metaphysics with an immanentist eschatology and the
self-assurance that the goal of all historical progress toward
higher states of being will be attained by purely earthly powers
that disdain everything spiritual. Thus, the modern secular
state has arrogated all power and authority to itself, while

[xii]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

banishing religion and ontology to the margins as antiquated

superstitions to be tolerated but not encouraged until their
eventual extinction. The catastrophic result has been the
malignant degradation, or "liquidation of the vestiges of the
medieval order, of that very order which Lord Acton insisted
created every typical instrument of liberty and human dig¬
3
nity known to the West." Ironically, it is precisely in trans¬
forming itself triumphantly into the ideal secular order that
the West is committing suicide, although the secularists are
too preoccupied by the scent of victory to notice that their
completely immanent, despiritualized, and de-ontologized
world in which man is his own self-sufficient master rests
on Nothing. And, Wilhelmsen noted as far back as 1967,
"the secularization of American society today is not simply
repeating the European past. Secularization here, carrying
behind it the entire weight of the European experience, is far
more profound than anything hitherto known in the Catholic
world.... And our American secularization . . . is deepening a
movement towards total secularization which today is truly
4
worldwide." Almost half a century later his prescience has
been more than confirmed as the juggernaut of secularism and
the all-powerful secular State relentlessly crush everything else.
Wilhelmsen's own characterization of secularist humanists
was that they were "those men who, refusing to recognize sin
and evil as part and parcel of the universe in its present fallen
state, refusing to see the world as fundamentally absurd from
every canon of 'secular' reason, ignore or sentimentalize evils
that are absolutely unredeemable, and view all the others as
'problems' to be dissolved by themselves through techniques
developed in their own wills." He thought that "secular hu¬
manist" was the most accurate name for the person who holds
this worldview: "'humanist' because man is made the measure
of all things, and 'secular' because salvation is thought to be
within the reach of powers of nature as mastered by science

[xiii]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

5
and social action." Secular humanists simply refuse to look at
actual evil (with the possible exception of Nazism), although
they tend to apply the term to anyone who disagrees with
them. The Catholic, by contrast, sees evil as "a wound, a
laceration cutting away the edges of being, but leaving intact
the central mystery—the truth that men and things are, and
6
are good."
Wilhelmsen lived his life through a theocentric and Chris-
tocentric vision of existence that is the antithesis of secular
humanism, not only in its theism but also in its reverence
for the wisdom embodied in tradition. In his essay on "The
Conservative Vision" from 1955 he defined his opposition to
"the modern temper" which has created a false world.

We see a world wherein science, liberated from traditional life, has been permit­
ted to go its own way and build a new universe which is intolerable to the very
psychic structure of man. We see a world wherein art, divorced from the living
culture of the people, has fashioned an esoteric dream foreign to the faith and
aspirations of Western man. We see a world wherein the state, freed from the
religious convictions of the nation, has pushed its own nature to the limits of
7
totalitarian slavery. We see a world compounded of abstraction and violence.

In his carefully chosen borrowing from Max Weber, conser­

vatism is "the party of enchantment" that arose in answer to
modern man's "disenchantment of the world." The enchant¬
ment is due to the awareness of transcendence that, for me¬
8
dieval human beings, "sacramentalized the whole of being."
Space, time, and material things were hallowed by their power
to connect man to transcendence. In medieval Europe the cult
of the Virgin was very strong because Christians understood
the meaning of existence as "God with us," and the Christian
knew that "he [was] separated from the Absolute by the thin
crust of a material world that might dissolve any moment leav­
9
ing him standing before his Judge." The historical material
world is pervaded by the fragrance of the transcendent God
who is Being yet who entered history through a woman and

[xiv]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

earned a living as a carpenter. Wilhelmsen was a profound

believer in the concreteness of historical existence as well as
of the concrete historical person of Christ who spoke specific
words, performed specific actions, and actually died, rose from
the dead, and, post-resurrection, cooked and ate specific fish
in the presence of his disciples. As Wilhelmsen put it, "Upon
those fish I base my faith." Therefore he looked back upon
the medieval vision of the unity of all existence "as the mythic
foundation for what [he] would call the conservative vision,"
which is what he meant by the enchantment of reality. In
short, conservatives, in Wilhelmsen's understanding, believe
that our concrete historical existence is in tension toward the
transcendent God and a culture that denies this metaphysical
reality exchanges Being for Nothing, the substance of order
for increasing disorder.
With the exception of a few paragraphs, Christianity and
Political Philosophy consists of essays written between the
mid-sixties and mid-seventies on diverse political subjects uni¬
fied by the common themes of Christianity and natural law.
The topics of the chapters are concerned with the Christian
understanding of the right order of existence as it relates to
politics. In other words, while these essays are on the surface
about Christianity and political philosophy they are actually
profoundly metaphysical in their assumptions. Therefore,
as background for Christianity and Political Philosophy it is
helpful to have some familiarity with Wilhelmsen's arguments
in two earlier works, The Metaphysics of Love (1962) and The
Paradoxical Structure of Existence (1970), the latter a text¬
book based on his lectures on metaphysics at the University
of Dallas. The first book, which I will deal with briefly, has
a concise Preface worth quoting in full for the light that it
sheds on his thinking:
These studies in the metaphysics of love are offered the reader as meditations
written by a man who believes that agape lies at the heart of all being, and who

[xv]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION E D I T I O N

believes that the best approach to agape is by way either of the theology of the
Blessed Trinity or the ontology of human existence within history. To those
who would follow the higher way, I recommend the works of Richard of Saint
10
Victor. To those whose tastes run to the philosophical, I address this book.

The thesis of the book is neatly summed up in the two

quotations that Wilhelmsen uses as epigraphs, "Nullius boni
sine consortio potest esse fecunda possessio," "Ownership of no
property (or good thing) can be beneficial without sharing
(it)" from Richard of Saint Victor, and "It is not well for God
to be alone," from G. K. Chesterton. (The alert reader will
have noted that Chesterton did not say that it is not good for
God to be alone but that it is not well, meaning that the act
of existence is not well i f God is alone.) Or, in Wilhelmsen's
own words referring to human existence, "...man is not a
complete person until he has been loved absolutely, until he
has been loved in and by an act of a Person to whom he can
give himself freely and who will freely give him—rather be
for him—the anchor in being that man so desperately needs.
Answered only by the God of Christianity, by the Christ of the
Creeds, the being of man—as revealed in experience—is never
revealed as an absolute. Man's being, seen in the light of both
authentic and unauthentic experiences, is a being for another
and a being toward another."Thatis, man finds fulfillment
only in participation, in loving and being loved, and not in
trying to be some absolute ego. Personality is constituted by a
1 1
"we" rather than an " I . " While this is ontology it is concrete
because "the mystery of man that the philosopher meditates
consciously is the life of man himself in history. The more a
man lives this mystery, the more it troubles his heart and stirs
12
his being, the more fully does he become a person." This
is one of the laws of being that politics violates at its peril.
The Paradoxical Structure of Existence is partly a survey of
Western metaphysics to the twentieth century, and partly a
critical analysis, in the light of the Thomistic metaphysics,

[xvi]
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E TRANSACTION EDITION

of esse, of existence, or "to-be," more literally. This is a dense,

profound, and demanding work that expands on the theme
ofTheMetaphysics of Love and makes clear why so many stu¬
dents were enthralled by Wilhelmsen's teaching because, like
all good teaching, and reasoning, it is lucid and penetrating
and thereby lifts the fog in which modernity is engulfed.
Wilhelmsen's argument is that Aquinas's metaphysics of
being is "an enormous advance within the history of phi¬
losophy, an advance within which the philosopher of today
13
must not halt, but from which he cannot prescind." This
advance is in Aquinas's realization that esse, being or existence,
"is the ultimate and first metaphysical principle." It is not an
essence but distinct from it. It is not a thing or an object or
a substance but an act that our minds cannot really concep¬
tualize. It is the horizon of what cannot be articulated that
"englobes" (to use Wilhelmsen's word) the realm of essences
that we can articulate. Because metaphysics concerns itself
with the ultimate mystery it "must content itself with dark¬
ness, a darkness paralleling that of the mystic, falling short of
his glory but taking pride, nonetheless, in having been faithful
14
to the darkened light of the human intelligence."
Wilhelmsen argues that the metaphysics that has the most
accurate insight into existence is paradoxical rather than
dialectical because paradox maintains tension while dialectic
attempts to resolve it due to the inability to endure the ten¬
sion. "Paradox . . . achieves a tension and then maintains it!
The refusal to either affirm or deny existential activity and
the willingness to reason, to philosophize, within the tension
15
produces the paradoxical situation of metaphysics." The
paradox is rooted in the statement that "the act of existing
1 6
does not exist. " That is, existence, to be, is itself the ultimate
that does not and cannot participate in anything higher. (This
runs parallel to the statement that God is the Being without a
cause.Thecondition of being caused does not apply to God.)

[xvii]
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