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Medieval History and Archaeology
General Editors
JOHN BLAIR HELENA HAMEROW

Perceptions of the Prehistoric

in Anglo-Saxon England
 MEDIEVAL HISTORY AND
ARCHAEOLOGY
General Editors
John Blair Helena Hamerow

The volumes in this series bring together archaeological, historical, and visual
methods to offer new approaches to aspects of mediaeval society, economy,
and material culture. The series seeks to present and interpret archaeological
evidence in ways readily accessible to historians, while providing a historical
perspective and context for the material culture of the period.

RECENTLY PUBLISHED IN THIS SERIES

TREES AND TIMBER IN THE ANGLO-SAXON WORLD

Edited by Michael D. J. Bintley and Michael G. Shapland

VIKING IDENTITIES
Scandinavian Jewellery in England
Jane F. Kerhaw
LITURGY, ARCHITECTURE, AND SACRED PLACES IN ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND
Helen Gittos
RURAL SETTLEMENTS AND SOCIETY IN ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND
Helena Hamerow
PARKS IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND
S. A. Mileson
ANGLO-SAXON DEVIANT BURIAL CUSTOMS
Andrew Reynolds
BEYOND THE MEDIEVAL VILLAGE
The Diversification of Landscape Character in Southern Britain
Stephen Ripon
WATERWAYS AND CANAL-BUILDING IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND
Edited by John Blair
FOOD IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND
Diet and Nutrition
Edited by C. M. Woolgar, D. Serjeantson, and T. Waldron
GOLD AND GILT, POTS AND PINS
Possessions and People in Medieval Britain
David A. Hinton
THE ICONOGRAPHY OF EARLY ANGLO-SAXON COINAGE
Sixth to Eighth Centuries
Anna Gannon
PERCEPTIONS OF THE
PREHISTORIC IN
ANGLO-SAXON
ENGLAND
Religion, Ritual, and Rulership
in the Landscape

SARAH SEMPLE

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
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# Sarah Semple 2013
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First Edition published in 2013
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For my parents
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface and Acknowledgements
The beginnings of this book lie in an undergraduate dissertation which investi-
gated the medieval church and large prehistoric henge at Avebury in Wiltshire.
This project, and a passion for early medieval archaeology, were nurtured at the
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, encouraged by my excel-
lent tutors especially James Graham Campbell. The main project, however,
began life as doctoral research, funded by the AHRC and completed at The
Queen’s College, Oxford in 2003. After several revisions, the final manuscript
was realized during research leave granted by my department at Durham
University in 2010. Throughout its creation, I have benefited from the inspiring
guidance of John Blair, who has provided advice on all forms of evidence for
the Anglo-Saxon world, and to whom I remain indebted, for his continuing
generosity with knowledge and good advice.
The resulting volume is, I hope, something a little different from the main stream
literature on Anglo-Saxon England. We know that early medieval communities
were intimately connected to the landscape that surrounded them through their
daily lives and activities. This book reveals that ancient prehistoric monuments
in those landscapes had as much meaning for early medieval communities as the
natural world. They were not just places to bury the dead, but legendary
locations and places of pre-Christian power and myth that continued to
hold meaning after the conversion. To stand in a certain ancient hill fort was
to stand where past heroes had fallen, where battles had been lost and won, at a
place intimate to tales of the beginnings of Anglo-Saxon Society. An ancient
barrow cemetery on the skyline could be claimed anew, and reworked into the
fabric of a new mythology of descent, ownership, and territory. Monuments,
therefore, rather than merely old features inspiring awe or fear, were used to
mark out a potent terrain invested with power and myth. Far from fading away
at the conversion, this meaningful landscape survived and was negotitated
afresh by late Anglo-Saxon populations who populated its hills and pools
with monstrous entities and beasts and used landscape to structure new rituals
of power.
It is my hope that this book achieves a deeper understanding of this numinous
landscape and reawakens the early medieval imagination in the modern eye.
There is material here of interest for archaeologists working on funerary
archaeology and landscapes, and working with concepts of power, monumen-
tality, and place, and elements of the book may have appeal to those working in
place-name studies, literary studies, and, of course, medieval history. Any book
has its limitations and this one is no exception. On reflection the question of
viii Preface and Acknowledgements

competing British traditions of reuse in the fifth and sixth centuries has received
less attention than it should. The geographic focus is also skewed to the Anglo-
Saxon kingdoms in the south, east, and north, and the west of England is not
explored here fully. Finally the emphasis on landscape and prehistoric monu-
ments could have been balanced with a deeper consideration of the use of
Roman ruins and more detailed investigation of the recycling and circulation
of prehistoric and Roman artefacts. I can only hope that what lies in these pages
acts as a stimulus and incentive to others to press on and explore these gaps
further.
The text has been seen by many on its journey and is much improved as a
consequence. I am grateful to my examiners Helena Hamerow and Martin
Carver; and to Richard Bradley, John Hines, Helen Geake, Sam Lucy, Howard
Williams, and Victoria Whitworth for early comments on my thesis. More
recently the revised script has benefited from input by Abby Antrobus, Gwen
Bergius, Derek Craig, Rosemary Cramp, Vicky Crewe, Tom Moore, and Sam
Turner. Specific chapters were read and commented on by Stuart Brookes,
John Baker, and Alex Sanmark (Chapter 3), Alaric Hall and Richard Jones
(Chapter 5), and Andrew Reynolds, Stuart Brookes, and John Blair (Chapter 6).
Alaric Hall and John Baker deserve especial thanks for their close scrutiny of my
use of Old English literary sources and Old English place-names in Chapter 5
and Appendix 4. Two anonymous reviewers also provided welcome advice
which has served to strengthen the volume, and the text has been much
improved by the hard work of Alejandra Gutierrez and the OUP team. I am
grateful to Brian Buchanan and Alex Turner for producing the original illustra-
tions in the volume and to John Blair, John Bleach, Bill Britnell, Stuart Brookes,
Vicky Crewe, Paul Everson, Richard Green, Dawn Hadley, Sam Lucy, Dominic
Powlesland, Andrew Reynolds, Daniel Smith, David Stocker, Paul Tubb,
Alisdair Whittle, Mark Whyman, Howard Williams, and the British Museum,
Cambridge University, Corpus for Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture, English
Heritage, Oxford Archaeology Unit, the Society for Medieval Archaeology
and the Victoria and Albert Museum for permission to reproduce illustrations.
The early research for this book was made possible by support from my
parents, epecially when my son was younger. Its completion has been made all
the more pleasurable by working with a fantastic group of colleagues at
Durham, in Archaeology and in the Institute for Medieval and Early Modern
Studies, not least my recent PhD students, Gwen Bergius, Lisa Brundle, Sira
Dooley Fairchild, Celia Orsini, and Tudor Skinner. Family, close friends, and
colleagues have all indirectly in one way or another contributed to the develop-
ment of this book, but my final thanks are to those who lived with its creation,
to Andrew, Alex, and Jacob.
Sarah Semple
 Contents
List of Figures x
List of Colour Plates xii
List of Tables xiii
List of Abbreviations and Primary Sources xiv

1. The past in the past: Multidisciplinary perspectives on

Anglo-Saxon ‘reuse’ 1
2. Burial, community, and identity and the prehistoric past:
Anglo-Saxon England c. AD 400–800 13
3. Ancestral, spiritual, and magical? Pre-Christian attitudes
to the prehistoric 63
4. The circle and the cross: Medieval churches and prehistoric
monuments 108
5. Changing meanings: Prehistoric monuments in literature
and place-names c. AD 700–1100 143
6. Royal and religious theatre: Monuments and power in
mid to late Saxon England 193
7. Visions of the past: The Anglo-Saxons and the ancient
landscape 224

Appendix 1. Burials of fifth- to eighth-century date in the

East Yorkshire study area 243
Appendix 2. Weaponry discovered in possible non-funerary
contexts at prehistoric monuments 249
Appendix 3. Medieval churches situated with reference to prehistoric
monuments 253
Appendix 4. Monuments and the supernatural in Anglo-Saxon
charter-bounds 261
Bibliography 282
Index 325
 List of Figures
1.1 Cwichelmeshlæwe: Scutchmer’s Knob, Hendred, Berkshire 2
2.1 The location of the study regions investigated in Chapters 2 and 5 17
2.2 Burials and settlements of fifth- to eighth-century date
in the West Sussex study area 19
2.3 Burials and settlements of fifth- to seventh-century date located along
the Adur Valley 21
2.4 Burials and settlements of fifth- to eighth-century date in the East
Yorkshire study area 28
2.5 Cemeteries and burials located on or near linear entrenchments in East
Yorkshire 31
2.6 The changing size of barrows reused for burial in
East Yorkshire over time 33
2.7 Burials reusing prehistoric barrows at Painsthorpe Wold,
East Yorkshire 33
2.8 Garton Slack I and II 35
2.9 Burials and settlements of fifth- to eighth-century date in the North
Wiltshire study area 39
2.10 Ogbourne St Andrew, Wiltshire 43
2.11(a) Female barrow burial at Swallowcliffe Down, Wiltshire 49
2.11(b) Excavated plan of Roundway Down, Wiltshire 49
3.1 Heavenfield, Northumberland 68
3.2 Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex 70
3.3 Knap Hill, Wiltshire 78
3.4 Barbury Castle, Wiltshire 79
3.5 Early medieval burials at a cluster of prehistoric barrows at
Llandysilio in Wales 81
3.6 Location of the ambush site at the fording place on the River Kennet,
Wiltshire 88
3.7 The Anglo-Saxon settlement at Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxfordshire 95
3.8 The Pillar of Eliseg, Llangollen, Wales 102
3.9 Lilla Cross at Lilla Howe, North Yorkshire 102
3.10 The square building or enclosure at Yeavering, Northumberland 105
4.1 Stanton Drew, Somerset 109
4.2 Rudston, East Yorkshire: the church and standing stone 111
4.3 The church of St James, Avebury 113
4.4(a) Corhampton, Hampshire 116
 List of Figures xi

4.4(b) St Mary’s at Chithurst, Sussex 116

4.4(c) The eleventh-century church at Ford, Sussex 116
4.5 The church and prehistoric ring-ditches at Bampton in Oxfordshire 117
4.6 A Christianized ‘landscape’ of prehistoric remains at Lewes in Sussex? 121
4.7 The early medieval monastic landscape at Ripon, North Yorkshire 122
4.8 Taplow, Buckinghamshire: the barrow and the plan
of the putative chapel 124
4.9 The undedicated church at Berwick in Sussex 125
4.10 St Weonard’s Church, Herefordshire 126
4.11 Breedon-on-the-Hill, Leicestershire 128
4.12 Old Sarum, Wiltshire, from the air 131
4.13 Churches and causeways along the River Witham in Lincolnshire 140
5.1 Sigurð killing Fáfnir. Tenth-century grave marker from York Minster 145
5.2 The Franks Casket 148
5.3 Swanborough Tump, Wiltshire: the meeting place of
Swanborough Hundred 163
5.4 The distribution of all supernatural references within the corpus
of Old English charter -bounds 171
5.5(a) Place-names and toponyms associated with the name Grim 174
5.5(b) Toponyms and place-names associated with the deities:
Tiw, Thunor/Thor 177
5.5(c) Place-names and toponyms associated with puca, skratti,
and scucca: goblins or demons 181
5.5(d) Distribution of place-names and toponyms associated with the þyrs 184
6.1 The execution site at Walkington Wold, Yorkshire 198
6.2 Wandlebury hill fort, Cambridgeshire 202
6.3 Castle Hill, Berkshire 203
6.4 Anglo-Saxon settlement at Sutton Courtney, Berkshire 208
6.5 A meeting at the Wroth Stone, Knightlow, in Warwickshire 214
 List of Colour Plates
1 West Heslerton cemetery, North Yorkshire
2 Adam’s Grave or wodnesbeorh, ‘woden’s barrow’, Wiltshire
3 The early medieval settlement at Yeavering, Northumberland
4 Uffington hill fort, the White Horse, and Dragon Hill
5 Stonehenge, Wiltshire: a place of execution in the eighth century
6 Sinners at the mouth of hell with severed limbs
7 Sinners depicted as executed, beheaded victims
8 ‘Marvels of the East’
 List of Tables
2.1(a) Cemeteries and burials identified in the West Sussex study region 22
2.1(b) Sussex burials and their topographic associations 23
2.2 Cemeteries and burials identified in the East Yorkshire study region 29
3.1 Weaponry found at prehistoric monuments in possible
non-funerary contexts 80
3.2 Battles AD 450–850 recorded in both the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle (E) and Bede, HE 85
5.1 ‘Grim’s Ditch’ place-names 175
5.2 Place-names containing the element Grim/Grimr- 176
5.3 Place-names containing the OE element Thunres/Thunor 177
5.4 Place-names referring to dragons 179
5.5 Place-names containing the OE scucca and ON skratti, ‘goblin’ 181
5.6 Place-names containing the OE elements puca and pucel 183
5.7 Place-names containing OE Þyrs 185
6.1 Mounds, barrows, and execution cemeteries 199
6.2 Linear ditches, earthworks, and execution cemeteries 200
6.3 Hill forts and execution cemeteries 201
 List of Abbreviations and
Primary Sources
ASC Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Swanton 1995)
Ass Asser, Life of Alfred the Great (Keynes and Lapidge 1983)
B Anglo-Saxon charters cited by catalogue number from Birch
1885–93
BAR British Archaeological Reports
BCS Birch Cartularium Saxonicum (Birch, W. de Gray 1885–93)
CBA Council for British Archaeology
DB Domesday Book
EPNS English Place-Name Society
Germania Tacitus, Germania, ed. and trans. Mattingly 1970
HBMCE Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England
HE Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Sherley-Price
1968)
HMSO Her Majesty’s Stationery Office
K Anglo-Saxon charters cited by catalogue number from Kemble
1839–48
OE Old English
ON Old Norse
RCHME Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England.
S Anglo-Saxon charters cited by catalogue number from Sawyer
1968
SMR Sites and Monuments Record, now Historic Environment
Record
Vercelli The Vercelli Homilies (Scragg 1992)

Vita Sancti Guthlaci Felix’s Life of St Guthlac (Colgrave 1956)

Vita Wilfridi Stephen of Ripon, The Life of Bishop Wilfrid by Eddius
Stephanus (Colgrave 1927)
County Abbreviations
(Counties are those that preceded the reorganization of 1974)
BDF Bedfordshire MDX Middlesex
BRK Berkshire NFK Norfolk
BUC Buckinghamshire NTB Northumberland
CAM Cambridgeshire NTH Northamptonshire
CHE Cheshire NTT Nottinghamshire
 List of Abbreviations and Primary Sources xv

CMB Cumberland OXF Oxfordshire

DEV Devon RUT Rutland
DOR Dorset SFK Suffolk
DRB Derbyshire SHR Shropshire
DRH Durham SOM Somerset
ESX Essex SSX Sussex
GLO Gloucestershire STF Staffordshire
HMP Hampshire SUR Surrey
HNT Huntingdonshire WAR Warwickshire
HER Herefordshire WLT Wiltshire
HRT Hertfordshire WML Westmorland
KNT Kent WOR Worcestershire
LEI Leicestershire YOE Yorkshire East Riding
LIN Lincolnshire YON Yorkshire North Riding
LNC Lancashire YOW Yorkshire West Riding
This page intentionally left blank
 1
The past in the past
Multidisciplinary perspectives on Anglo-Saxon ‘reuse’

Introduction
In AD 1006 a challenge was made to the English by the Danish raiding army at
Cwicchelmes hlæwe [Cwichelmeshlæwe] or the ‘Mound of Cwichelm’. This site
is known today as Scutchamer Knob, situated in East Hendred on the Oxford-
shire and Berkshire border (Gelling 4: 481–2). The raiding army camped and by
so doing confronted local legend, awaiting in vain the ‘boasted threats, because
it had often been said that if they sought out Cwichelm’s Barrow, they would
never get to the sea’ (ASC (E) 1006; Swanton 1996: 137, n. 20). They eventually
turned homeward, achieving a safe return to the Hampshire coast. Today
Cwichelmeshlæwe is recognized through fieldwork as a prominent prehistoric
tumulus, once over 60 metres in diameter and 7 metres in height (see Figure 1.1)
(Semple: forthcoming (a)). Despite its creation in prehistory, this monument
must have held a political significance for the late Anglo-Saxon communities
and powers of this region. It was named after a member of the West Saxon royal
family and is twice documented as the meeting place of the late Saxon shire
assembly (Gelling 1974: 481–2; see also Robertson 1939). In 1006, the monu-
ment was described in relation to emotive and popular folklore, linking the safe
defence of England to the security of the mound. Perhaps for this reason the
raiding army chose it as a place for a theatrical and political statement designed
to weaken English resolve.
Prehistoric monuments were important to early medieval populations. They
recognized them as ancient features, as human creations from a distant past.
They used them as landmarks, battle sites, and estate markers. They gave them
new Old English names. Before and even during the conversion to Christianity,
communities buried their dead in and around these relict features and placed
elite graves within them. After the conversion, several churches were built in
and on these monuments, great assemblies and meetings were held at them, and
felons executed and buried within their surrounds.
This book examines how the communities of Anglo-Saxon England perceived
and used prehistoric monuments across the period AD 400–1100. The early
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