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Network Programmability and
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Skills for the Next-Generation Network Engineer

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Network Programmability and Automation
by Matt Oswalt, Christian Adell, and Scott S. Lowe
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978-1-098-11076-5
Chapter 1. Network Industry
Trends

A NOTE FOR EARLY RELEASE READERS

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[email protected].

More than a decade has passed since Software Defined Networking

(SDN), one of the biggest revolutions in networking industry since
the nineties, and it’s likely that the term is still confusing you.
Whether you are new to it or you have been hung up in the SDN
craze for the past several years, do not worry. This book will walk
you through foundational topics to start your journey on how
software, cloud, and open source have completely transformed how
we architect and manage networking in the modern era. This
chapter provides insight to trends in the network industry focused
around SDN, its relevance, and its impact in today’s world of
networking. We’ll get started by reviewing how Software Defined
Networking made it into the mainstream and ultimately led to trends
around network programmability and automation.
The Rise of Software Defined Networking
If there was one person that could be credited with all the change
that is occurring in the network industry, it would be Martin Casado,
who is currently a General Partner and Venture Capitalist at
Andreessen Horowitz. Previously, Casado was a VMware Fellow,
Senior Vice President, and General Manager in the Networking and
Security Business Unit at VMware. He has had a profound impact on
the industry, not just from his direct contributions (including
OpenFlow and Nicira), but by opening the eyes of large network
incumbents and showing that network operations, agility, and
manageability must change. Let’s take a look at this in a little more
detail.

OpenFlow
For better or for worse, OpenFlow served as the first major protocol
of the Software Defined Networking (SDN) movement. OpenFlow is
the protocol that Martin Casado worked on while he was earning his
PhD at Stanford University under the supervision of Nick McKeown.
OpenFlow is only a protocol that allows for the decoupling of a
network device’s control plane from the data plane (see Figure 1-1).
In simplest terms, the control plane can be thought of as the brains
of a network device and the data plane can be thought of as the
hardware or application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) that
actually perform packet forwarding.
 Figure 1-1. Decoupling the control plane and data plane with OpenFlow

RUNNING OPENFLOW IN HYBRID MODE

Figure 1-1 depicts the network elements having no control plane.
This represents a pure OpenFlow-only deployment. Many devices
also support running OpenFlow in a hybrid mode, meaning
OpenFlow can be deployed on a given port, virtual local area
network (VLAN), or even within a normal packet-forwarding
pipeline such that if there is not a match in the OpenFlow table,
then the existing forwarding tables (MAC, Routing, etc.) are
used, making it more analogous to Policy Based Routing (PBR).

What this means is OpenFlow is a low-level protocol that is used to

directly interface with the hardware tables (e.g., Forwarding
Information Base, or FIB) that instruct a network device how to
forward traffic (for example, “traffic to destination 192.168.0.100
should egress port 48”).

NOTE
OpenFlow is a low-level protocol that manipulates flow tables, thus
directly impacting packet forwarding. OpenFlow was not intended to
interact with management plane attributes like authentication or SNMP
parameters.

Because the tables OpenFlow uses support more than the

destination address as compared to traditional routing protocols,
there is more granularity (matching fields in the packet) to
determine the forwarding path. This is not unlike the granularity
offered by Policy Based Routing. Like OpenFlow would do many
years later, PBR allows network administrators to forward traffic
based on “non-traditional” attributes, like a packet’s source address.
However, it took quite some time for network vendors to offer
equivalent performance for traffic that was forwarded via PBR, and
the final result was still very vendor-specific. The advent of
OpenFlow meant that we could now achieve the same granularity
with traffic forwarding decisions, but in a vendor-neutral way. It
became possible to enhance the capabilities of the network
infrastructure without waiting for the next version of hardware from
the manufacturer.

HISTORY OF PROGRAMMABLE NETWORKS

OpenFlow was not the first protocol or technology used to
decouple control functions and intelligence from network devices.
There is a long history of technology and research that predates
OpenFlow, although OpenFlow is the technology that started the
SDN revolution. A few of the technologies that predated
OpenFlow include Forwarding and Control Element Separation
(ForCES), Active Networks, Routing Control Platform (RCP), and
Path Computation Element (PCE). For a more in-depth look at
this history, take a look at the paper “The Road to SDN: An
Intellectual History of Programmable Networks” by Jen Rexford,
Nick Feamster, and Ellen Zegura.

Why OpenFlow?
While it’s important to understand what OpenFlow is, it’s even more
important to understand the reasoning behind the research and
development effort of the original OpenFlow spec that led to the rise
of Software Defined Networking.
Martin Casado had a job working for the national government while
he was attending Stanford. During his time working for the
government, there was a need to react to security attacks on the IT
systems (after all, this is the US government). Casado quickly
realized that he was able to program and manipulate the computers
and servers as he needed. The actual use cases were never
publicized, but it was this type of control over endpoints that made it
possible to react, analyze, and potentially re-program a host or
group of hosts when and if needed.
When it came to the network, it was near impossible to do this in a
clean and programmatic fashion. After all, each network device was
closed (locked from installing third-party software, as an example)
and only had a command-line interface (CLI). Although the CLI was
and is still very well known and even preferred by network
administrators, it was clear to Casado that it did not offer the
flexibility required to truly manage, operate, and secure the network.
In reality, the way networks were managed had never changed in
over 20 years except for the addition of CLI commands for new
features. The biggest change was the migration from Telnet to SSH,
which was a joke often used by the SDN company Big Switch
Networks in their slides, as you can see in Figure 1-2.
 Figure 1-2. What’s changed? From Telnet to SSH (source: Big Switch Networks,
acquired by Arista Networks)

All joking aside, the management of networks has lagged behind

other technologies quite drastically, and this is what Casado
eventually set out to change over the next several years. This lack in
manageability is often better understood when other technologies
are examined. Other technologies almost always have more modern
ways of managing many devices for both configuration management
and data gathering and analysis—for example, hypervisor managers,
wireless controllers, IP PBXs, PowerShell, DevOps tools, and the list
can go on. Some of these are tightly coupled from vendors as
commercial software, but others are more loosely aligned to allow
for multi-platform management, operations, and agility.
If we go back to the scenario Casado encountered while working for
the government, what sort of questions came up when looking for
answers? Was it possible to redirect traffic based on application? Did
network devices have an API? Was there a single point of
communication to the network? The answers were largely no across
the board. How could it be possible to program the network to
dynamically control packet forwarding, policy, and configuration as
easily as it was to write a program and have it on an end host
machine?
The initial OpenFlow spec was the result of Martin Casado
experiencing these types of problems firsthand. While the hype
around OpenFlow has died down since the industry is starting to
finally focus more on use cases and solutions than low-level
protocols, this initial work was the catalyst for the entire industry to
do a rethink on how networks are built, managed, and operated.
Thank you, Martin.
This also means if it weren’t for Martin Casado, this book would
probably not have been written, but we’ll never know now!
What Is Software Defined Networking?
We’ve had an introduction to OpenFlow, but what is Software
Defined Networking (SDN)? Are they the same thing, different
things, or neither? To be honest, SDN is just like Cloud was more
than a decade ago, before we knew about different types of cloud,
such as Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service
(PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).
Having reference examples and designs streamlines the
understanding of what cloud was and is, but even before these
terms did exist, it could be debated that when you saw cloud, you
knew it. That’s kind of where we are with Software Defined
Networking. There are public definitions that exist that state white-
box networking is SDN or that having an API on a network device is
SDN. Are they really SDN? Not really.
Rather than attempt to provide a definition of SDN, we will cover the
technologies and trends that are very often thought of as SDN, and
included in the SDN conversation. They include:

Opening up the forwarding plane

Network Functions Virtualization
Virtual switching
Network virtualization
Device APIs
Network automation
Bare-metal switching
Data center network fabrics
SD-WAN
Controller networking
 Intent-based networking
Infrastructure as Code

NOTE
We are intentionally not providing a definition of SDN in this book.
While SDN is mentioned in this chapter, our primary focus is on general
trends that are often categorized as SDN to ensure you’re aware of
each of these trends more specifically.

Of these trends, the rest of the book will focus on network

automation, APIs, and peripheral technologies that are critical in
understanding how all the pieces come together in network devices
that expose programmatic interfaces with modern automation tools
and instrumentation.

Opening up the forwarding plane

Already introduced OpenFlow as the main disruptor opening up the
forwarding plane to allow its control by external software control
planes. One of the major benefits of using a protocol like OpenFlow
between a controller and network devices was be true vendor
independence from the controller software and the underlying virtual
and physical network devices. However, the reality seen during
OpenFlow development was that the standard OpenFlow was always
behind the vendor extensions.
Moreover, OpenFlow’s design was constrained by its own abstract
modeling (not covering all the ASIC SDKs capabilities) and also by
the predefined packet-processing pipelines (defining the steps
packets will traverse) available in the ASICs, with predefined data
structures (tables) where OpenFlow could change the forwarding
state in runtime.
 NOTE
No changes in OpenFlow standard development have been published
since 2017, and its adoption is very limited to specific use-cases.

Understanding the some limitations in OpenFlow, new questions:

Why are these packet-processing pipelines fixed?

Why can’t we define our own data structures?
Barefoot Networks, now part of Intel, answered that call, creating a
new family of high-performant chips (Tofino) with a full
programmable execution pipeline, along with a new programming
language “Protocol-independent Packet Processors(P4)”.

NOTE
P4 and OpenFlow protocol specifications are driven by the same
organization, “Open Network Foundation(ONF)”.

This new disruptive approach challenged the switch silicon market

status quo. Broadcom, the biggest player in the game, launched an
alternative programmable solution (“Network Programming
Language(NPL)”) (with a limited set of configurable options) and
also made a significant move to offer an easier way to program their
chips by opening their SDK (“OpenBCM”) in 2020. Other players
have also adopted some level of programmability. For instance, Cisco
Silicon One or Juniper Trio/Penta solutions support P4
programmability.
 NOTE
Traditionally, the ASICs have been programmed (with the constraints of
a fixed-processing pipeline) via chip vendors’ SDKs, which expose the
pre-created data structures and methods in order to define how the
packet forwarding will be executed (taking into account the forwarding
state data).
Since, few years ago, the chip vendors have started to open their SDKs
which were previously shared under request and NDA, in order to
facilitate third-party programmability of their solutions. Likely, this
change was motivated by the industry push towards low-level
programmability of ASICs.

These high customizable ASICs have a limited market today, due

higher cost and some technical constraints- some market forecasts
show a significant increase in adoption in the next years. Time will
tell how this market evolves and which use-cases will benefit the
most from the flexibility that these programmable pipelines offer.
In Figure 1-3 we see a combined scenario with OpenFlow, P4 and
ASIC SDK. This is only for illustrating the potential interaction of
these different solutions. Only use one of them in each case. For
instance, if you have a low-level application programming an SDK
you would expose your own API.
 Figure 1-3. Programmable ASICs

Programming the forwarding plane benefits getting more granular

with how traffic traverses the network, but with great power comes
great responsibility. This is great if you have a team of developers (in
big corporations such as Google, Amazon, etc.) or if it is your core
business (NOS vendors and integrators). But, for most organizations,
the use of OpenFlow, P4 or any other given protocol will be less
important than what an overall solution offers to the business being
supported.

Network Functions Virtualization

Network Functions Virtualization, known as NFV, isn’t a complex
concept. It refers to taking functions that have traditionally been
deployed as hardware, and instead deploying them as software. The
most common examples of this are virtual machines that operate as
routers, firewalls, load balancers, IDS/IPS, VPN, application firewalls,
and any other service/function.
 WARNING
Please, do not confuse our description of the NFV concept with the
concrete ETSI NFV specification, for the Telecom industry. Here, we
approach NFV from an abstract point of view, without concrete
implementation details.

With NFV, it becomes possible to break down a monolithic piece of

hardware that may have cost tens or hundreds of thousands of
dollars, with hundreds to thousands of lines of commands, to get it
configured into N pieces of software, namely virtual appliances.
These smaller devices become much more manageable from an
individual device perspective.

NOTE
The preceding scenario uses virtual appliances as the form factor for
NFV enabled devices. This is merely an example. Deploying network
functions as software could come in many forms, including embedded in
a hypervisor (known as Virtual Network Function, VNF), as a container
(known as Container Network Function, CNF), or as an application
running atop an x86 server.

It’s not uncommon to deploy hardware that may be needed in three

to five years just in case, because it’s too complicated and even
more expensive to have gradual upgrades. So not only is hardware
an intensive capital cost, it’s only used for the what-if scenarios if
growth occurs. Deploying software-based, or NFV, solutions offers a
better way to scale out and minimize the failure domain of a network
or particular application while using a pay-as-you-grow model. For
example, rather than purchasing a single large Cisco ASA, you can
gradually deploy Cisco ASAv appliances and pay as you grow. You
can also scale out load balancers easily with newer technologies
from a company like Avi Networks, now part of VMware.
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