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Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:23 09 March 2017
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page i

The Age of the

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Dictators
A Study of the European Dictatorships, 1918–53

David G. Williamson
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DICT_A01.QXP
6/22/07
3:52 AM
Page ii

Page Intentionally Left Blank

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DICT_A01.QXP
6/22/07
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Page iii

To Luca and Marco

 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page iv

First published 2007 by Pearson Education Limited

Published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2007, Taylor & Francis.

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The right of David G. Williamson to be identified as author of this work has

been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978–0–582–50580–3 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A CIP catalog record of this book can be ontained from the Library of Congress

Set by 3 in 10pt Sabon

 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page v

Contents
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Preface xv
List of maps xvii
Maps xviii
Acknowledgements xxvi
Introduction 1

Part One: The origins of the dictatorships 5

Chapter 1 The years of crisis, 1890–1918 7

Introduction 8
Proto-Fascism 9
The revolt against materialism, rationalism and liberalism 10
The alliance of nationalism and Socialism 11
Marxism and the Revolutionary Left 12
In Western and Central Europe 12
In Russia 14
The Impact of the First World War 16
Russia 17
Austria–Hungary 18
Germany 19
Italy 21
Assessment 22
Documents 23

Part Two: The legacy of war and partial recovery 27

Chapter 2 The victory of Leninism in Russia, 1917–27 29

Introduction 30
The February and October Revolutions 31
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page vi

vi CONTENTS

The February Revolution 31

The Provisional Government 32
The Kornilov coup 34
Lenin and the Bolshevik Party 36
The October Revolution 38
The early months after the Bolshevik seizure of power,
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October 1917–January 1918 40

The Constituent Assembly 42
Ending the war with Germany: the Treaty of Brest–Litovsk 44
The Civil War 45
Military operations 45
Allied intervention 50
Why Was a Red rather than a White Dictatorship
triumphant by December 1920? 50
The defeat of the leftist opposition 52
The development of the Cheka 53
Creation of a one-party dictatorship 53
The emergence of the Lenin cult 54
War Communism 55
The cultural civil war 57
The NEP 60
The ban on factionalism 63
The creation of the USSR 63
The recreation of the Russian Empire 63
The 1924 constitution 63
Lenin’s death and the battle for the succession, 1922–8 64
Lenin’s death 64
The defeat of Trotsky and the United Opposition 67
The defeat of Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky 69
The NEP years: the attempt to create a new Russia 70
The peasantry and the NEP 70
The workers 71
Was the NEP bound to fail? 72
Bolshevik Russia and the world, 1918–27 73
Assessment 75
Documents 76

Chapter 3 Italy: the creation of the Fascist state, 1918–29 86

Introduction 87
The post-war crisis of the Liberal state, 1919–22 88
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page vii

CONTENTS vii

The end of transformismo 88

The ‘mutilated peace’ and the Fiume incident 89
Economic and social problems 90
Mussolini and the rise of Fascism 91
The resurgence of Fascism 94
From movement to party 95
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The ‘march’ on Rome 98

The consolidation of power, 1922–5 100
The Acerbo Electoral Law and the election of April 1924 101
The Matteotti Affair and its consequences 103
The growth of the totalitarian state, 1925–9 104
Party–state relations 105
The police state 107
The development of the corporatism 109
The economy: the ‘battles’ for the lira and for grain 110
Church–state relations 112
Foreign policy, 1922–9 113
The Corfu crisis 114
Italy, Britain and France 114
The Balkans and the colonies 115
Assessment 115
Documents 117

Chapter 4 The vacuum of power and the rise of

authoritarianism, 1918–29 126
Introduction 126
Central, Eastern and Southern Europe 128
Hungary: the defeat of the Soviet dictatorship 128
Bulgaria 131
Romania 132
Spain 133
1926: the year of the four coups in Greece, Poland,
Portugal and Lithuania 134
Greece 134
Poland 134
Portugal and Lithuania 135
Yugoslavia 135
Austria 136
Assessment 137
Documents 137
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page viii

viii CONTENTS

Chapter 5 Weimar Germany: the seedbed of Nazism? 140

Introduction 142
The defeat of the revolutionary and authoritarian challenges,
1918–23 142
The revolution of 1918–19 142
The Weimar constitution 145
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The Treaty of Versailles 147

Containment of the Left and re-emergence of the Right 148
The Ruhr occupation, 1923–4 150
The growth of the Nazi party and the Munich putsch 154
Stabilization, 1924–9 158
German economic recovery 158
The peaceful erosion of the Versailles Treaty 159
Structural problems of the Republic 159
The unpopularity of the Republic 161
Hitler and the Nazi party, 1925–9 162
Assessment 164
Documents 164

Part Three the 1930s: The impact of the Great Depression 173

Chapter 6 The collapse of Weimar and the triumph of

National Socialism, 1930–4 175
Introduction 176
The impact of the Great Depression 178
The fall of the Grand Coalition 179
Brüning, the ‘Hunger Chancellor’, March 1930–May 1932 180
The election of September 1930 181
Brüning’s second government, September 1930–May 1932 183
The Papen and Schleicher cabinets, June 1932–January 1933 186
The coup against Prussia 186
The elections of 31 July and 6 November 1932 187
The Schleicher government, 4 December 1932–30
January 1933 188
The failure to contain Hitler 189
The election of 5 March 1933 190
The Enabling Act 191
Gleichschaltung and the creation of the one-party state 193
The defeat of the ‘second revolution’ 194
Assessment 197
Documents 198
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 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page ix

CONTENTS ix

Chapter 7 The Third Reich, 1933–9 206

Introduction 207
The political structure of the Third Reich 209
Central government 209
The Nazi Party 210
The SS state 211
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The role of Hitler 212

The economy, 1933–9 215
Kick-starting the economy 215
Agriculture 216
Rearmament and the Four-Year Plan, 1933–6 217
Was there a growing economic crisis by 1939? 219
The Volksgemeinschaft 220
Influencing a new Nazi generation: education and
youth movements 221
The peasantry 223
Women and the family 223
The workers and the Volksgemeinschaft 225
Selling the Volksgemeinschaft: the Reich Ministry of
Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda 227
The churches and the Volksgemeinschaft 229
Policing the Volksgemeinschaft 230
Race and eugenics 231
The non-Jewish racial minorities 231
The Jews 232
Hitler’s role in the formulation of anti-Semitic policy:
the structuralist–intentionalist debate 234
Foreign policy 235
The historical debate on Hitler’s foreign policy 235
The first three years 236
The Anschluss 238
The Sudeten crisis and the destruction of Czechslovakia,
March 1938–April 1939 239
The attack on Poland and the Anglo-French declaration
of war 241
Assessment 242
Documents 243

Chapter 8 The development of Italian Fascism, 1929–39 255

Introduction 256
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page x

x CONTENTS

The Duce and his government 256

The development of totalitarianism 257
Propaganda 258
The impact of Fascism on the educational system 260
Fascist youth groups 262
Fascism and the Italian people 264
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The workers 264

The peasantry 266
Welfare 267
Women 268
The Catholic Church and the Fascist regime 269
Fascism accelerates, 1936–9: the Fascist cultural revolution 272
The anti-bourgeois campaign 272
The reform of custom 273
Anti-Semitism 273
The economy, 1930–9 274
The impact of the Depression 274
Autarky 276
Preparing the economy for war 277
Was Fascism economically a failure? 277
Foreign policy, 1933–9 278
The historians and Fascist foreign policy in the 1930s 278
Mussolini and Germany, 1933–5 280
The Ethiopian War 281
The Spanish Civil War 284
The German alliance 285
Italian neutrality, September 1939–June 1940 289
Assessment 290
Documents 291

Chapter 9 The Spanish Civil War and the beginning of

the Franco regime 299
Introduction 300
The Second Republic 302
The Republican Socialist coalition, 1931–3 302
The revival of the Right 304
The bienio negro or ‘two black years’ 306
The slide to civil war, February–May 1936 307
The military coup of 18 July 1936 307
The Civil War 310
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xi

CONTENTS xi

The outline of events 310

The Great Powers and Spain. 1936–9 314
The Republic and the Civil War, 1936–9 315
The social and economic revolution 315
The restoration of discipline 316
The role of the Communists 317
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Attempted consolidation: the Negrín ministry, 1937–9 318

The Nationalists and the Civil War 318
Forging a united Nationalist regime 319
Policies of Franco’s wartime regime 321
Did Franco establish a Fascist state in 1939? 321
Economic policy 323
Foreign policy 323
Assessment 324
Documents 325

Chapter 10 Stalin and the second revolution, 1927–41 331

Introduction 332
Collectivization and the end of the NEP 333
The consequences 335
Industrializaton and the Five-Year Plans, 1928–41 337
Formulating the first Five-Year Plan 337
Implementing the Five-Year Plans, 1929–41 338
The purges, show trials and the Terror 340
The Kirov assassination 341
The show trials 342
The Ezhovshchina or the Great Purges 344
Assessment of the purges 345
Life in Stalinist Russia, 1929–41 347
The cultural revolution 347
The urban revolution 348
The new working class 350
Women and the family in the USSR 352
The creation of the Stalinist political system 353
From oligarch to dictator: the evolution of Stalin’s power 354
The Stalin cult 356
Foreign policy 357
The rise of Hitler 358
The Sudeten crisis, 1938 360
The Nazi–Soviet Pact 360
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xii

xii CONTENTS

The outbreak of war with Nazi Germany 361

Assessment 363
Documents 364

Chapter 11 Institutionalized authoritarianism 372

Introduction 372
Poland and the Baltic states 373
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Hungary and Austria: the successor states 374

Hungary 375
Austria 377
Romania and the Balkan states 378
Portugal 379
Assessment 380
Documents 380

PART FOUR: The dictators and the Second World War 383

Chapter 12 Europe under German domination 385

Introduction 386
The German occupation of Western Europe and the invasion
of Russia, June 1940–June 1941 386
Europe under German Domination, 1939–44 387
Western Europe 388
Vichy France and the ‘national revolution’ 389
Spain 392
South-Eastern Europe 393
Eastern Europe 395
The Holocaust 397
Historians and the Holocaust 397
The road to the extermination camps 398
Assessment 399
Documents 402

Chapter 13 Nazi Germany: the home front 407

Introduction 408
Führer, government and party 409
The Führer state 409
Policing the home front 411
The SS 411
The party 412
The war economy 414
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xiii

CONTENTS xiii

The impact of Albert Speer 415

The labour problem 416
The Volksgemeinschaft at war 419
Women and the family 419
Youth and the war 420
The workers 421
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Support, Resistenz and opposition 421

The plot of 20 July 1944 423
The end of the Third Reich 424
Assessment 425
Documents 426

Chapter 14 Fascist Italy at war 432

Introduction 432
Italy at war, 1940–1 434
The home front 436
The economy 436
The crisis of ‘disappointed expectation’,
December 1940–March 1941 437
The decline of the PNF 438
Mussolini’s overthrow 439
The Salò Republic 440
The collapse of the Republic, 1944–5 442
Assessment 443
Documents 444

Chapter 15 Stalinism and the Great Patriotic War 448

Introduction 448
Military events, June 1941–May 1945 449
The impact of the war on Stalin and the Communist Party 450
Stalin 450
The party 451
A new structure of government emerges 452
Propaganda and control 452
The economy 453
The evacuation of plant 454
War production: crisis and recovery, 1942–5 454
The mobilization of labour 455
Agriculture 456
The Soviet people and the war 457
A society in convulsion 457
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xiv

xiv CONTENTS

The mobilization of women 458

‘A breath of fresh air’ 459
The nationalities 459
Foreign policy 460
Poland and Eastern Europe 461
Assessment 463
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Documents 464

Chapter 16 The survivors: the USSR, Spain and Portugal 468

Introduction 469
The USSR 470
Economic reconstruction 470
Industrial recovery 470
Agriculture 472
Late Stalinism 472
The emergence of the Quintet 472
The Leningrad and Gosplan Affairs and the Doctor’s Plot 474
The Communist Party, 1945–53 475
The Russian peoples and the post-war period 475
Late Stalinist foreign policy 477
Iran and Turkey 477
Europe 478
The Far East 479
Spain and Portugal 481
The Franco Regime 481
Portugal: Salazar survives 482
Assessment 482
Documents 483

Part Five Assessment 487

Chapter 17 The dual triumph of Western democracy

and Marxism–Leninism 489

Further reading 493

Glossary 508
Index 515
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xv

Preface
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The object of this book is to provide for students, and indeed all
who are interested in this period, a concise and up-to-date study
of the ‘era of the dictators’. Its emphasis inevitably falls on the
history of the three main dictatorships of Soviet Russia, Fascist
Italy and Nazi Germany, but the Spanish Civil War and the estab-
lishment of Franco’s dictatorship in Spain is also analysed and
there are shorter chapters on the establishment of authoritarian
regimes in many new states that came into being after the defeat
of the Central Powers in 1918.
The book is divided into four main sections dealing with the
origins of the dictatorships and then their development up to
1945 – and beyond, in the case of Stalinist Russia and Francoist
Spain. Each chapter starts with an introduction, which outlines its
major themes and indicates the main topics that it addresses.
Focus boxes and brief notes in the margin help explain points
made in the text by providing background information or sum-
maries of historiographical debates, while a timeline at the
beginning of each chapter provides a guide to the key dates of the
relevant material covered in the chapter. At the end of the book
there is also a comprehensive glossary of technical terms. The text
is cross-referenced so that readers can explore the origins and
consequences of events they are studying, as well as the similari-
ties and differences between the dictatorships. In places, bullet
points are used to help readers grasp simply and speedily key
developments of complex events. At the end of each chapter there
is a collection of documents, which both serve as a basis for
further discussion and illustrate more fully some of the issues
 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xvi

xvi PREFACE

referred to in the main text. At the end of the book there are sug-
gestions for further reading of books in English on the dictators,
which are divided into sections and enable readers to explore
issues raised in this study in greater depth.
Finally I would like to thank Heather McCallum, Christina
Wipf Perry and Natasha Dupont for all their help and encourage-
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:23 09 March 2017

ment while writing this book.

 DICT_A01.QXP 6/22/07 3:52 AM Page xvii

Maps
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 11:23 09 March 2017

1 European governments, 1919–37 xviii

2 The Russian Civil War, 1918–20 xix
3 The Spanish Civil War: the strategic situation,
August 1936 xx
4 German expansion, 1935–July 1939 xxi
5 The German invasion of the USSR, 1941 xxii
6 The German mastery of Europe, 1942 xxiii
7 Italian expansion, 1939–43 xxiv
8 Central Europe, 1955 xxv
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