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Ctesias’ Persica and
Its Near Eastern Context
Publication of this volume has been made possible, in part,
through the generous support and enduring vision of
Warren G. Moon.
Ctesias’ Persica and
Its Near Eastern
Context

Matt Waters

The University of Wisconsin Press

The University of Wisconsin Press
1930 Monroe Street, 3rd Floor
Madison, Wisconsin 53711-2059
uwpress.wisc.edu

3 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden

London WC2E 8LU, United Kingdom
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Copyright © 2017
The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System
All rights reserved. Except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical
articles and reviews, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted in any format or by any means—digital, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—or conveyed via the Internet
or a website without written permission of the University of Wisconsin Press.
Rights inquiries should be directed to [email protected].

Printed in the United States of America

This book may be available in a digital edition.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Waters, Matthew W. (Matthew William), author.

Title: Ctesias’ Persica and its Near Eastern context / Matt Waters.
Other titles: Wisconsin studies in classics.
Description: Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, [2017] |
Series: Wisconsin studies in classics | Includes bibliographical references
and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016016555 | ISBN 9780299310905 (cloth: alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Ctesias. Persica. | Iran—History—To 640—Historiography.
| Iran—History—To 640—Sources.
Classification: LCC PA3948.C9 W38 2017 | DDC 935/.05—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016016555
To
my teachers

In memory of
Dr. Erle Verdun Leichty
1933–2016

Dr. Clyde Curry Smith

1929–2016
 Contents

List of Illustrations ix
Preface xi

Introduction 3

1 The Eunuch In-between 20

2 Semiramis, Queen of Battle 45

3 A Different Kind of Education for Cyrus 60

4 The Inverted Hero’s Many Faces 78

Conclusion 101

Appendix: Regnal Dates of Assyrian, Babylonian,

and Persian Kings 105
Notes 107
Bibliography 131
Index 151
Index Locorum 157

vii
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 Illustrations

Map 1 The Persian Empire in the Achaemenid Period 4–5

Figure 1 Bisitun Relief and Inscriptions of Darius I 15
Figure 2 Eunuch (?) attendant, Palace of Darius, Persepolis 22
Figure 3 Treasury Relief, Persepolis 23
Figure 4 Tomb of Darius I, Naqsh-i Rustam 42
Figure 5 Attendants of Darius I, Tomb of Darius I, Naqsh-i Rustam 42
Figure 6 Edward Degas, Semiramis and the Construction of Babylon 49
Figure 7 Head of Sargon of Akkad (?), from Nineveh 51
Figure 8 Sargon II, relief from Khorsabad (Dur Sharrukin) 54
Figure 9 Lineages of Cyrus 61
Figure 10 Cyrus Cylinder, from Babylon 62
Figure 11 Cyrus, in collated line drawing of PFS 93* 62
Figure 12 Sippar Cylinder of Nabonidus 66
Figure 13 King approaching Anahita on a lion 80
Figure 14 Ishtar as goddess of war standing on a crouching lion 81
Figure 15 Eugene Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus 83
Figure 16 Darius I as royal hero, Palace of Darius, Persepolis 87
Figure 17 Darius I as royal hero, in collated line drawing of PFS 7* 87
Figure 18 Family tree of Megabyzus (II) 95

ix
 Preface

Ctesias’ Persica is, directly or indirectly, a main source for many

of our perceptions of Achaemenid Persian history and culture. Like most Greek
writers who coded their writings for their Greek audiences, Ctesias presented
skewed views of the Persian court and nobility. Breaking these codes has occupied
many scholars over the last generation. The study of Ctesias’ works has been
undergoing a renaissance of late, spurred by the translations and commentaries of
D. Lenfant (2004), G. Nichols (2008, 2011), L. Llewellyn-Jones and J. Robson
(2010), and J. Stronk (2010), along with numerous specialized studies, promi-
nent among them the contributions to the 2011 volume edited by J. Wiesehöfer,
R. Rollinger, and G. Lanfranchi. Lenfant 2004 and Stronk 2010 contain both the
Greek text of the Persica and a translation, and are considered the current standard
editions. Those books and my own contribution owe much to the foundational
studies of F. Jacoby (1922, 1958) and J. Bigwood (1964), among many others that
will be cited throughout this work.
This book was long in the making, often subordinated to other projects or
responsibilities. I hope it will serve as an impetus for further explorations into how
Ctesias adapted Near Eastern material for his Greek milieu and how his Persica
impacted subsequent literature. The project’s genesis lay in a planned translation
of the text with a traditional historical commentary, but others (listed above) ably
beat me to it. Vestiges of the original purpose remain, but ongoing research into
the Persica led to several Near Eastern elements that warranted additional scrutiny.
Because the Persica touches on numerous subjects beyond Achaemenid history
and culture—including, but not limited to, Greek historiography and the develop-
ment of Greek romance—it intersects several topics that have been extensively
treated in the scholarly literature. In those instances, this book will betray its roots
as a commentary, as I refrain from rehashing well-covered scholarly debates and
instead keep the focus on those elements germane to analysis of the chosen case
studies. Terminal or representative bibliography is the norm in such cases, to keep
notes manageable. These case studies were chosen (in a sense, they chose them-
selves) to emphasize an overarching point that is not new but seems to need reitera-
tion: Ctesias’ Persica is not simply a product of the author’s active imagination.

xi
 Preface

While many of its thematic elements can, and of course should, be traced within
Greek tradition, several are also at home—indeed, find their origins in—Near
Eastern traditions. Some thematic elements of the Persica make better sense (or
make sense, period) when considered in conjunction with the Near Eastern context.
The phrase “Near Eastern context” is used for convenience, since it encom-
passes the Iranian and Elamite backdrop as well as the Mesopotamian and, to a
much lesser extent, the Egyptian. The term “Mesopotamian” is also used for con-
venience, referring to Babylonian, Assyrian, Akkadian, Sumerian, and other civili-
zations that inhabited the greater Fertile Crescent—almost two thousand years of
traditions from the geographic region that the Greeks called Mesopotamia. Trans-
lations herein are my own unless otherwise noted. The Greek text of the Persica
and related testimonia referenced or quoted are from Lenfant’s definitive edition
of 2004, based on Jacoby 1958 (FGrH 688), and also Stronk’s important edition of
2010. Citations of primary and secondary sources generally follow standard abbre-
viations found in The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 4th edition, and the multivolume
Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (CAD). Achaemenid royal inscriptions are cited in the
standard format: king’s first initial, superscripted number (if applicable), and lo-
cation. Lowercase letters demarcate separate inscriptions from the same site; for
example, A2Sd §1 indicates Artaxerxes II, Susa, inscription d, section 1. The spelling
of names, always an issue in normalizing words from different languages into
English, is not always as consistent as one would like. There is great variety among
modern works. More recognizable names from Achaemenid studies are generally
spelled in their Latinized form herein, for example Ochus instead of Ochos, Darius
instead of Dareios (or Darayavaush), though some adhere to their original Greek
endings. Other names tend to approximate standard usage in modern works, for
example Ashurbanipal.
Attribution of fragments to the Persica is at times a thorny problem. Fragments
of questionable status are marked by asterisks as per Lenfant 2004. The reader is
directed there and to Stronk 2010 for manuscript commentary, discussions, and
references on fragment attribution. This issue is also addressed in the introduction
and at other points throughout this book, with frequent cross-references between
chapters, reflecting the repetition of themes and motifs in the original Persica. The
cross-references also serve as a reminder that the case studies discussed herein were
not, as they may at times seem, discrete stories but part of an integrated whole.

Several individuals and institutions are to be thanked for their support for this
project. A fellowship from the American Council of Learned Societies helped the
project get off the ground many years ago; a fellowship from the Loeb Classical
Library Foundation was instrumental in returning to it, after a long hiatus, and

xii
 Preface

moving the research toward completion. Research support from the University of
Wisconsin–Eau Claire was critical for the project’s continuation, in particular the
Office of Research and Sponsored Programs, as well as John McCrackin and the
excellent InterLibrary Loan staff at UWEC. Great thanks are due also to the Center
for Hellenic Studies at Harvard University and the Institute for Research in the
Humanities at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Fellowships at each provided
critical access to library resources as well as interesting and insightful colleagues,
whose comments improved several aspects of this work. I also thank Jan Stronk
and the late Clyde Smith for their careful eyes, numerous helpful suggestions, and
bibliographic acumen; the anonymous reviewers for the University of Wisconsin
Press; Laura McClure and Marc Kleijwegt for their encouragement of this proj-
ect; Jane Barry for careful copyediting; Amber Rose, Raphael Kadushin, Sheila
McMahon, and other staff at UW Press for their professionalism and assistance;
Beth Dusinberre, Mark Garrison, Jim Muhly, Greg Nagy, Chessie Rochberg, and
Margaret Root for sharing images, moral support, and wisdom; and most of all
my family, simply but profoundly for being there.

xiii
Ctesias’ Persica and
Its Near Eastern Context
 Introduction

Ctesias and the Persica

Ctesias of Cnidus served as a doctor to the Persian king Arta­

xerxes II at the turn of the fourth century bce, and personally attended to the
King’s wound during the battle of Cunaxa in 401. Following close to a century of
Greeks and Egyptians in medical service at the Persian court, Ctesias’ presence
among the staff was far from a novelty. He was the author of a number of works,
including the Indica and On the Tributes of Asia, but the focus here is on his most
famous work, the Persica: a history, using the term very loosely, of Assyria, Media,
and Persia down to his own time, ca. 400. None of his works has survived in full,
but it is clear that Ctesias was widely read in antiquity.
Ctesias’ name is derived from a root meaning “acquired” (Greek κτάομαι); in
light of his Persian employment, one may wonder whether it was a pseudonym.
He was a doctor, son of Ctesiarchus—also a doctor—from the Carian town of
Cnidus on the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. Cnidus was an old city, an impor-
tant center for the study of medicine.1 It was a nexus of both the Aegean and wider
Mediterranean worlds and was also formally part of the Achaemenid Persian Em-
pire. Despite the liminal status of many Ionian cities with regard to Athenian, and
occasionally Spartan, expansionism in the later fifth and early fourth centuries,
from the perspective of the King the entire area was imperial territory: ruled by a
Persian satrap in the King’s name and answerable to Persian officials. Ctesias was a
subject of the King even before he formally entered his service.
The generally accepted figure for Ctesias’ sojourn in Persia is seventeen years,
but both that number and when those years began and ended remain a matter of
sometimes spirited debate. If seventeen years is correct—various modern scholars
have attempted to modify the figure in ingenious and vexing ways—that would
place him at the Persian court as early as 415, during the last decade of the reign of
Darius II. The circumstances of his arrival there (recruited or hired? captured or

3
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