Jacobean Drama

The term Jacobean drama refers to plays written and performed during the
reign of King James I of England (1603–1625). The word “Jacobean” comes
from Jacobus, the Latin form of James. This period directly followed the
Elizabethan age, and while it inherited much from Elizabethan drama, it
developed distinct features reflecting the changing political, social, and
cultural climate.
Elizabethan drama, led by Shakespeare and his contemporaries, celebrated
optimism, heroism, national pride, and exploration of human possibilities.
By contrast, Jacobean drama took a darker turn, often exploring pessimism,
corruption, intrigue, violence, and the complexities of human psychology.
Key Features of Jacobean Drama
1. Dominance of Tragedy
 Jacobean drama is best known for its tragedies, which became much
darker and more cynical compared to Elizabethan tragedies.
 Revenge tragedies became especially popular, modeled after Seneca and
influenced by Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy.
 Plays often featured bloody plots, murders, ghosts, poisonings, and
supernatural interventions.
 Examples: Shakespeare’s Macbeth and King Lear, John Webster’s The
Duchess of Malfi, Cyril Tourneur’s The Revenger’s Tragedy.
2. Themes of Corruption and Decay
 A reflection of the political uncertainty of James I’s reign, many plays
explored corruption in courts, politics, and human morality.
 The plays often depicted decay of values, betrayal, and moral
ambiguity, presenting a stark contrast to Elizabethan idealism.
 Example: Webster’s The White Devil exposes corruption within Italian
courts.
3. Psychological Depth and Obsession
 Characters are often portrayed as driven by obsessions—revenge, power,
lust, or ambition.
 Greater focus was given to inner conflicts, madness, and the darker
recesses of the human psyche.
  Shakespeare’s Macbeth exemplifies this with its exploration of ambition
and guilt, while Hamlet (transitioning into the Jacobean period) embodies
obsession with revenge and mortality.
4. Use of the Supernatural
 Ghosts, witches, omens, and apparitions are frequent devices to create
suspense and horror.
 The supernatural was not only an entertainment feature but also a way to
probe existential and religious anxieties.
 Example: Macbeth’s witches, Middleton’s The Witch, and The Duchess of
Malfi’s use of visions and madness.
5. Revenge Motif
 Revenge became a central theme, often pursued with ruthless violence
and resulting in widespread destruction.
 Revenge plots questioned justice, morality, and divine order, leaving
audiences unsettled.
 Examples: The Revenger’s Tragedy (Tourneur), Hamlet, The Duchess of
Malfi.
6. Dark and Violent Tone
 Plots are frequently filled with murder, betrayal, intrigue, incest, and
bloodshed.
 Unlike the Elizabethan tragic hero who often retains some nobility,
Jacobean characters are often morally corrupt themselves.
 Example: Ferdinand and the Cardinal in The Duchess of Malfi embody
cruelty and lust for power.
7. Satire and Cynicism
 Comedy in the Jacobean era became more satirical than in the
Elizabethan period.
 Dramatists like Ben Jonson used plays to critique social manners, court
corruption, and human follies.
 Example: Jonson’s Volpone and The Alchemist ridicule greed, hypocrisy,
and gullibility.
8. Focus on City Life and Realism
  Unlike Elizabethan plays that often celebrated nobility and heroic figures,
Jacobean drama frequently depicted London city life, middle-class
characters, and urban corruption.
 The “city comedies” of the period, such as Thomas Middleton’s A Chaste
Maid in Cheapside, focused on greed, money, and sexual intrigue in
London society.
9. Complex, Morally Ambiguous Characters
 Heroes and heroines are no longer simply noble or virtuous; they are
flawed, morally complex, and often complicit in wrongdoing.
 The line between villain and hero blurs, leaving audiences questioning
traditional moral categories.
10. Innovations in Stagecraft
 Theatres such as the Blackfriars Theatre introduced indoor staging,
candlelight effects, music, and machinery, allowing for more elaborate
spectacles.
 This suited the Jacobean taste for atmospheric, eerie, and dramatic
settings.
Major Playwrights of Jacobean Drama
 William Shakespeare (late plays: Macbeth, Othello, King Lear, The
Tempest, Cymbeline).
 Ben Jonson (Volpone, The Alchemist, Bartholomew Fair).
 John Webster (The Duchess of Malfi, The White Devil).
 Thomas Middleton (The Changeling, Women Beware Women).
 Francis Beaumont & John Fletcher (Philaster, The Maid’s Tragedy).
 Cyril Tourneur (The Revenger’s Tragedy).
Literary Significance
1. Transition from Renaissance Idealism to Realism and Pessimism –
Shows disillusionment with political and social structures.
2. Foundation of Modern Tragedy and Psychological Drama – Explores
the unconscious mind, obsession, and moral corruption.
 3. Rich Use of Language and Imagery – Dark, poetic, and haunting
imagery sets Jacobean plays apart.
4. Influence on Later Drama – Inspired modern playwrights like T.S. Eliot
(who admired Webster) and modern revenge/dramatic theatre.

Ben Jonson
Early Life & Background
 Born on 11 June 1572 in Westminster, London.
 His father was a clergyman who died before Jonson’s birth; his mother
later remarried a bricklayer.
 Educated at Westminster School under the famous antiquarian William
Camden, who influenced his classical learning.
 Briefly worked as a bricklayer, then became a soldier in the Low
Countries (fighting against Spain).
 Entered the theatre world as both actor and playwright.
Career as a Playwright & Poet
 Recognized as one of the greatest playwrights after Shakespeare; often
considered Shakespeare’s literary rival.
 Famous for his comedies of humours, where characters are dominated
by one overriding trait or passion.
 Known for satire, classical learning, and wit in his plays.
 His plays often showcased urban life, vice, corruption, and hypocrisy,
especially in London.
 Besides plays, he was an important poet, critic, and literary theorist.
Literary Features
 Comedy of Humours: Characters dominated by single traits (e.g., greed,
jealousy).
 Classical Influence: Drew heavily on Roman playwrights (Plautus,
Terence, Seneca, Horace).
 Realism: Focused on contemporary London life, satire of society’s
follies.
  Moral Vision: His plays often expose human weakness, corruption, and
vice.
 Language: Dense, witty, sometimes difficult, full of puns, irony, and
learned references.
 Theatrical Innovation: Helped establish the comedy of manners and
realistic satire.
Relationship with Shakespeare & Contemporaries
 Rival and sometimes critic of Shakespeare, but also respected him.
 Famous for his line about Shakespeare: “He was not of an age, but for all
time.” (in his tribute poem, 1623 First Folio).
 Feuded with contemporaries like Thomas Dekker and John Marston,
but later reconciled.
Later Life
 Appointed Poet Laureate in 1616, with a royal pension (first unofficial
poet laureate of England).
 1620s–1630s: Health declined, suffered strokes and poverty.
 Died on 6 August 1637; buried in Westminster Abbey.
 His grave inscription reads: “O Rare Ben Jonson.”
Interesting Facts
 He once killed a fellow actor in a duel and narrowly escaped execution
by claiming “benefit of clergy” (reciting Psalm 51).
 Converted to Catholicism while in prison but later returned to
Protestantism.
 Known for his bohemian personality—outspoken, witty, quarrelsome.
 Had a circle of admirers and younger poets called the “Sons of Ben”
(including Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace).
 His masques were performed with the collaboration of Inigo Jones, the
famous architect and stage designer.
 Despite rivalry with Shakespeare, his poem in the First Folio (1623) is
one of the greatest literary tributes ever written.
Major Plays
1. Every Man in His Humour (1598)
Background
 First performed in 1598 by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (with
Shakespeare as part of the cast).
 It established Jonson as a major comic dramatist.
 The play belongs to Jonson’s “humours comedy,” where characters are
dominated by a single trait or obsession (a “humour”).
Setting
Originally set in Florence (in the first version, 1598), later revised to London in
the 1616 edition, making it more realistic and satirical of contemporary English
life.
Main Characters
 Knowell – an elderly gentleman, concerned about his son’s future.
 Edward Knowell (Ned) – his son, a witty young man.
 Brainworm – Ned’s clever servant, who schemes throughout the play.
 Downright – a plain-spoken, blunt man.
 Wellbred – Ned’s witty friend, brother to Dame Kitely.
 Kitely – a wealthy merchant, obsessively jealous of his wife.
 Dame Kitely – Kitely’s wife, wrongly suspected of infidelity.
 Cob – a water-carrier, representing the working class, with a nagging
wife Tib.
 Matthew & Bobadil – foolish gallants. Bobadil is a braggart soldier (a
parody of the miles gloriosus).
Plot Summary
Act I:
 Old Knowell intercepts a letter meant for his son Ned, inviting him to
visit Wellbred. Suspicious of Ned’s company, he sends Brainworm to spy
on him.
 Meanwhile, we are introduced to Kitely, who begins to show his
irrational jealousy toward his wife.
Act II:
 Ned Knowell goes to visit Wellbred. Brainworm, instead of carrying out
Knowell’s orders faithfully, disguises himself and plays tricks.
 Kitely grows more suspicious and enlists his servant Thomas Cash to
watch his wife.
Act III:
 Bobadil boasts of his military exploits, impressing gullible Matthew.
Together, they plan a duel with Downright (though they are cowards at
heart).
 Brainworm continues his mischief by changing disguises and misleading
both Knowell and Kitely.
Act IV:
 Kitely convinces himself his wife is having an affair with Wellbred. His
jealousy becomes almost farcical.
 Brainworm, disguised as a soldier, dupes both Knowell and others for
money.
 The foolish duel between Matthew, Bobadil, and Downright collapses
when their cowardice is revealed.
Act V:
 Brainworm’s tricks are finally uncovered.
 Old Knowell realizes his son Ned is not corrupted but actually virtuous.
 Kitely’s jealousy is exposed as baseless, and he is reconciled with his
wife.
 Cob beats his wife Tib, adding a comic subplot of marital strife.
 The play ends with order restored: folly is mocked, wit is rewarded, and
Jonson’s satirical aim is achieved.
Themes
1. “Humours” Theory – Each character is dominated by a single “humour”
(melancholy, jealousy, cowardice, pride, blunt honesty).
2. Satire of Society – Jonson satirizes London life, from gallants and
soldiers to merchants and commoners.
 3. Jealousy & Surveillance – Kitely’s jealousy anticipates later comic
husbands in Restoration drama.
4. Appearance vs Reality – Brainworm’s disguises show the instability of
outward appearances.
Literary Significance
 The play launched Jonson’s career and influenced English comedy with
its focus on character rather than plot.
 Introduced the “humour character” to English drama.
 Played by Shakespeare’s company, it links Jonson to the greatest
dramatists of the age.
 A move from romantic comedy toward satirical, realistic urban
comedy, paving the way for Restoration drama.

2. Every Man out of His Humour (1599)

Background
 Written as a sequel-in-spirit to Jonson’s earlier play Every Man in His
Humour (1598).
 First performed by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (Shakespeare’s
company).
 A satire built on the theory of “humours” (the bodily fluids thought to
determine temperament—blood, phlegm, choler, melancholy).
 Instead of balanced characters, Jonson exaggerates each figure’s
“dominant humour” to ridicule social follies.
Structure
 The play is framed by two characters, Cordatus (the commentator) and
Mitis (the spectator), who act as critics from the stage, guiding the
audience on how to read the satire.
 Divided into acts and scenes with numerous characters representing
different absurdities of London society.
Main Characters and Their "Humours"
 1. Fastidius Brisk – A vain, affected courtier, obsessed with fashion and
wit.
2. Carlo Buffone – A buffoon and railer, given to slander and mockery.
3. Sogliardo – A foolish country gentleman who apes courtly manners
without understanding them.
4. Deliro – A jealous husband, excessively devoted to his wife.
5. Fallace – Deliro’s wife, frivolous and unfaithful.
6. Macilente – Envious, lean, and bitter—discontented with others’
successes.
7. Sordido – A miserly farmer, hoards grain to drive up prices.
8. Fungoso – An imitator, desperately tries to copy others’ styles.
9. Shift – A con-man and impostor, living by trickery.
Plot Summary
The play does not follow a tight linear plot but instead presents a series of
satirical episodes exposing the ridiculous obsessions of its characters:
 Sordido, the miserly farmer, tries to manipulate the market by hoarding
grain but is exposed and disgraced.
 Fastidius Brisk struts about as a gallant but is revealed as shallow and
bankrupt.
 Carlo Buffone mocks everyone but is himself humiliated.
 Sogliardo spends money on a coat of arms to look noble, but his
foolishness is ridiculed.
 Deliro dotes foolishly on Fallace, who flirts with Brisk, highlighting
themes of jealousy and vanity.
 Macilente, the envious malcontent, serves as an observer who delights in
seeing others brought low. His envy drives much of the play’s satiric
sting.
 Shift dupes others with false professions, but his impostures are revealed.
By the end, each character’s dominant flaw (their humour) leads to their
embarrassment and downfall.
Themes & Significance
  Satire of social types: Jonson skewers courtiers, gulls, misers, and
hypocrites.
 Humour theory: Each character embodies a single ruling passion taken
to absurdity.
 Self-delusion: Characters are “out of their humour” because they attempt
to be something they are not.
 Moral correction: Like a moralist, Jonson aims to reform by ridiculing
vice and folly.

3. Cynthia’s Revels (1600)

Context
“Cynthia’s Revels, or The Fountain of Self-Love” is a satirical comedy by Ben
Jonson, first performed in 1600 by the Children of the Chapel. It is part of
Jonson’s War of the Theatres, his literary quarrel with contemporaries like John
Marston and Thomas Dekker. The play is a biting attack on courtly affectation,
vanity, and self-indulgence, using allegorical characters and satire to expose
moral corruption in society.
Plot Summary
Act I
 The play opens with two pages discussing their masters and setting up the
satirical tone.
 The main characters are court gallants—Amorphus (the deformed
traveler, symbol of vanity), Asotus (a foolish prodigal, meaning
“wastrel”), Anaides (the impudent reviler), and Hedon (the self-
indulgent sensualist).
 They are contrasted with nobler figures such as Crites (a representation
of true virtue, often thought to be Jonson himself), Arete (virtue
personified), and Mercury (the guide).
Act II
 Amorphus, Hedon, and Anaides indulge in absurd self-praise, empty
flattery, and foolish conversation. Their antics satirize the superficiality of
courtly manners.
  Asotus seeks to join them in order to learn “fashionable” behavior,
though he becomes more ridiculous in the attempt.
Act III
 Jonson introduces the allegorical figure of Cynthia (a representation of
Queen Elizabeth I, also linked to Diana, goddess of chastity and the
moon).
 Cynthia is depicted as pure, virtuous, and the moral center of the play.
Her presence serves to expose the follies of the courtiers who orbit her.
 Crites delivers a long critique of self-love and flattery, contrasting it with
true worth and integrity.
Act IV
 The courtiers continue their revels, displaying vanity, gossip, and rivalry.
 They prepare a masque to honor Cynthia, but their efforts reveal only
their own emptiness and folly.
 Crites stands apart, scorning their superficiality and championing honesty
and restraint.
Act V
 Cynthia appears and presides over a final judgment scene.
 The courtiers’ vices are exposed one by one, and they are ridiculed for
their affectation, pride, and lust.
 Crites and Arete (Virtue) are vindicated, symbolizing the triumph of true
moral worth over vanity and corruption.
 The play ends with Cynthia reaffirming virtue as the guiding principle of
life and court.
Themes
1. Vanity and Self-Love – The central satire is against narcissism and
hollow pride.
2. Courtly Corruption – Jonson attacks the artificial manners of
Elizabethan courtiers.
3. Virtue vs. Affectation – True worth (Crites/Arete) stands in contrast to
empty fashion (Amorphus, Hedon, Anaides).
 4. Moral Authority of the Queen – Cynthia, as Elizabeth I, embodies
justice, chastity, and moral superiority.
Literary Significance
 Cynthia’s Revels is one of Jonson’s most allegorical comedies, heavily
moralizing and filled with classical references.
 It reflects Jonson’s humanist ideals: virtue, honesty, and learning over
superficiality.
 It played a key role in the Poetomachia (“War of the Theatres”), where
Jonson mocked his rivals and set himself up as a defender of true wit and
virtue.
4. Poetaster (1601)
Context
Poetaster is one of Jonson’s famous “War of the Theatres” plays, written
during his feud with fellow playwrights like John Marston and Thomas Dekker.
It satirizes bad poets (or “poetasters”) who write for flattery, money, or vanity,
contrasting them with the true poet.
Setting
The play is set in ancient Rome, during the reign of Augustus Caesar—a
classical backdrop Jonson uses to disguise commentary on his contemporary
literary rivals.
Plot Summary
Act I
 The play opens with Ovid the Younger (based on the Roman poet Ovid),
who is shown as frivolous, indulging in love affairs rather than serious
poetry.
 His father, Ovid Senior, scolds him for wasting his talent on trivial
verses.
Act II
 Horace (a self-portrait of Jonson) is introduced. He is noble,
philosophical, and morally upright.
 He criticizes the rise of false poets—those who mimic art but lack
substance.
  Crispinus (a caricature of John Marston) and Demetrius Fannius (a
caricature of Thomas Dekker) are introduced as rival poetasters. They are
envious of Horace’s reputation and vow to ruin him.
Act III
 Ovid, ignoring his father’s advice, continues to pursue his affair with
Julia, daughter of Emperor Augustus.
 Meanwhile, Crispinus and Demetrius scheme to accuse Horace of libel
and disloyalty.
Act IV
 Augustus Caesar hosts a feast with poets and courtiers. He values poetry
but also seeks order in literary culture.
 Crispinus and Demetrius attempt to slander Horace, but Horace defends
himself eloquently.
 The contrast is made clear: Horace (Jonson) writes with integrity, while
Crispinus and Demetrius (Marston and Dekker) write with malice and
bombast.
Act V
 The climax occurs in the famous “purge scene.”
 Horace gives Crispinus a pill that causes him to vomit up ridiculous,
bombastic words he has used in his plays—“retrograde,” “reciprocal,”
“individuum,” and so on.
 This physical purgation is a comic metaphor for cleansing false poetry
from literature.
 Augustus supports Horace, condemns the poetasters, and restores order.
 The play ends with Horace vindicated as the true poet, while the
poetasters are disgraced.
Key Characters
 Horace – Represents Jonson himself; a moral, disciplined poet.
 Crispinus – A satire of John Marston, mocked for his bombastic style.
 Demetrius Fannius – Represents Thomas Dekker, portrayed as a hack
writer.
  Ovid Junior – A talented poet misled by sensuality and love.
 Augustus Caesar – Symbol of authority and judgment, representing
reason and order.
Themes
 True poetry vs. false poetry – Jonson’s defense of his literary ideals.
 Satire as purification – exposing and “purging” literary corruption.
 Authority in art – Augustus as arbiter reflects Jonson’s belief in
discipline and hierarchy in literature.
 The poet’s responsibility – moral and intellectual duty over personal
vanity.
Literary Significance
 Poetaster is a central text of the War of the Theatres, Jonson’s rivalry
with Marston and Dekker.
 It helped establish Jonson’s reputation as a self-conscious “literary
craftsman” defending classical ideals.
 The “vomiting scene” remains one of the most memorable examples of
comic literary satire in Renaissance drama.

5. Sejanus His Fall (1603)

Context
 Sejanus His Fall is a Roman tragedy by Ben Jonson, first performed in
1603 and published in 1605.
 It is set in imperial Rome during the reign of Emperor Tiberius.
 The play dramatizes the rise and fall of Lucius Aelius Sejanus, a
powerful courtier and commander of the Praetorian Guard.
Summary
Act I
 The play opens in Rome, where Sejanus is shown as a cunning, ambitious
figure, rising to immense power under Emperor Tiberius.
 He has seduced Tiberius with flattery and eliminated political rivals.
  Sejanus seeks to consolidate his authority by plotting against members of
the imperial family, including Germanicus’ heirs (the popular noble
family opposed to him).
Act II
 Tiberius grows more withdrawn, often absent in Capri, leaving Rome
under Sejanus’ influence.
 Sejanus manipulates senators and uses false accusations to bring down
his enemies, including Drusus (Tiberius’ son) and other nobles.
 Jonson emphasizes his Machiavellian cunning—masking tyranny with
loyalty.
Act III
 Sejanus grows bolder, aspiring to marry Livilla (Drusus’ widow and
Tiberius’ daughter-in-law), thereby tying himself to the imperial
bloodline.
 His ambition begins to unsettle others in Rome, but his power makes him
feared.
 Friends and flatterers continue to encourage him, while his enemies
quietly plot.
Act IV
 Tiberius, increasingly suspicious, begins to turn against Sejanus.
 Letters are sent from Capri suggesting that the emperor is wary of
Sejanus’ overreach.
 Rumors of Sejanus’ downfall spread, though his supporters still believe in
his security.
Act V
 Sejanus is suddenly denounced in the Senate by a letter from Tiberius.
 His allies abandon him instantly, and those who once flattered him now
call for his death.
 He is seized, stripped of honors, and executed.
 The play closes with a grim reflection on ambition, tyranny, and the
instability of political power.
Key Themes
 Ambition and Tyranny – Sejanus’ unrestrained thirst for power leads to
his ruin.
 Corruption and Flattery – The Roman court is full of sycophants who
turn opportunistically with fortune.
 Fate and Fortune – The play shows how power can collapse suddenly,
emphasizing the precariousness of courtly life.
 Moral Judgment – Jonson portrays Sejanus’ fall as both political and
moral, aligning it with divine justice.

6. Volpone (1606)
Setting:
Renaissance Venice – a place of wealth, greed, and corruption.
Main Characters:
 Volpone – a rich Venetian nobleman, cunning trickster, loves wealth but
has no heir.
 Mosca – Volpone’s parasite (servant and flatterer), sly and manipulative.
 Voltore – a lawyer, greedy and hypocritical.
 Corbaccio – an old miser, willing to disinherit his own son to gain
Volpone’s fortune.
 Corvino – a jealous merchant, willing to prostitute his wife for
inheritance.
 Celia – Corvino’s innocent wife, victim of her husband’s greed.
 Bonario – Corbaccio’s good-hearted son.
 Sir Politic Would-be – a foolish English traveller.
 Lady Politic Would-be – his talkative, pretentious wife.
Plot Summary:
Act I:
Volpone pretends to be deathly ill so greedy legacy-hunters (Voltore, Corbaccio,
Corvino) will bring him gifts and flatter him, hoping to be named his heir.
Mosca assists in the trick, delighting in manipulating the gullible men.
Act II:
Corbaccio disinherits his son Bonario in Volpone’s favor, while Corvino even
offers his wife Celia to cheer Volpone. Volpone, disguised, visits Celia and lusts
after her.
Act III:
Volpone, with Mosca’s persuasion, attempts to seduce Celia. He disguises
himself as a mountebank (quack doctor) and woos her from the street. Corvino,
enraged by the attention she receives, confines Celia more strictly.
Act IV:
Volpone, disguised again, tricks Celia into his home. When he tries to assault
her, Bonario rescues her. In court, Mosca manipulates the situation, turning
evidence so that Bonario and Celia are accused of misconduct, while the greedy
men support Volpone.
Act V:
Volpone, overconfident, spreads rumors of his death and secretly watches his
“heirs” scramble for his wealth. Mosca, however, seizes the chance to claim the
inheritance for himself, betraying Volpone. In the ensuing trial, the truth
emerges.
Ending:
 Volpone confesses his deceptions.
 Mosca is sentenced to the galleys (hard labor).
 Volpone is stripped of his wealth and imprisoned.
 Voltore is banished.
 Corbaccio disinherited and sent to a monastery.
 Corvino disgraced and punished.
 Celia is restored to her family’s estate.
Themes:
 Greed and moral corruption.
 Deception and disguise.
 Justice versus manipulation.
 Satire of Venetian society and human folly.
7. Epicoene, or The Silent Woman (1609)
Background
 First performed in 1609 by the Children of the Queen’s Revels.
 It is a satiric city comedy in prose, noted for its sharp wit, portrayal of
London society, and clever use of dramatic irony.
 Central themes: marriage, misogyny, gender roles, noise vs. silence, and
social deception.
Plot Summary
Main Storyline
 Morose, a wealthy old bachelor in London, is obsessed with silence. He
detests noise of any kind and dreams of marrying a perfectly quiet woman
so he can live in peace.
 His nephew Dauphine Eugenie wants to inherit his wealth. To secure
this, Dauphine hatches a plot to entrap Morose.
 Dauphine introduces Morose to Epicoene, supposedly a silent and
obedient young woman. Smitten by her apparent quietness, Morose
quickly marries her.
The Twist
 Once married, Epicoene immediately changes. She becomes loud,
domineering, and talkative—exactly the opposite of what Morose wanted.
 She fills the house with chatter, friends, and social visits, driving Morose
to despair.
 Morose begs for a divorce, but the lawyers and clergymen mock his
situation, reminding him of the binding nature of marriage vows.
Comic Subplots
 Several gallants and ladies (such as Truewit, Clerimont, and Daw)
provide comic commentary, ridiculing Morose and satirizing fashionable
London society.
 The play skewers pretentious courtiers, gossiping ladies, and greedy
relatives.
Climax and Resolution
  At the end, Dauphine reveals the trick:
o Epicoene is actually a boy disguised as a woman!
o The marriage is thus invalid, and Morose is humiliated.
 Dauphine secures his uncle’s estate as intended, and the play ends with
laughter at Morose’s foolishness and gullibility.
Main Characters
 Morose – A wealthy old bachelor obsessed with silence. Hates noise of
any kind. Foolishly marries Epicoene, thinking she is the perfect silent
wife. Becomes the main victim of the plot.
 Dauphine Eugenie – Morose’s clever nephew and heir. He schemes to
trick his uncle by presenting Epicoene as the “silent woman.”
Mastermind of the play’s central deception.
 Epicoene (the Silent Woman) – Introduced as a quiet, obedient young
lady. After marriage, she becomes loud, domineering, and unbearable. At
the end, revealed to be a boy disguised as a woman.
Significance
 Epicoene is admired for its sharp satire on marriage and gender roles.
 It mocks the idea of the “ideal silent wife” while also critiquing society’s
obsession with appearances and inheritance.
 The gender-bending twist at the end makes it one of the earliest English
plays to question fixed gender norms.

8. The Alchemist (1610)

Plot Summary
The Alchemist follows Santiago, a young Andalusian shepherd who dreams of a
treasure hidden near the Egyptian pyramids. Believing the dream to be
prophetic, he sets out on a journey to find it. Along the way, he meets several
important figures who guide him:
 Melchizedek (the King of Salem), who introduces him to the idea of a
Personal Legend—one’s true destiny.
 A crystal merchant, who teaches him about patience, risk, and missed
opportunities.
  An Englishman, who studies alchemy and shows Santiago the value of
knowledge and learning.
 The Alchemist, who becomes Santiago’s mentor, teaching him that true
wisdom is understanding the “Language of the World” and listening to his
heart.
 Fatima, a desert woman Santiago loves, who embodies the theme of love
as part of one’s destiny.
The journey through the desert is full of trials—tribal wars, theft, doubt, and
temptation—but Santiago learns that the real treasure lies not just in riches but
in self-discovery. Ultimately, he finds that the treasure he sought was buried
back in Spain, at the very place where his journey began. The lesson: by
pursuing one’s dreams wholeheartedly, the universe conspires to help achieve
them.
Main Characters
 Santiago – The protagonist, a shepherd boy searching for his Personal
Legend.
 Melchizedek (King of Salem) – A mystical figure who sets Santiago on
his journey.
 The Crystal Merchant – Represents fear of change and missed dreams.
 The Englishman – Obsessed with books, symbolizes knowledge without
lived experience.
 The Alchemist – A wise man who guides Santiago spiritually and
practically.
 Fatima – Santiago’s love interest, symbolizing that love supports, not
hinders, destiny.
Significance
1. Universal Themes – The novel blends philosophy, mysticism,
spirituality, and personal growth.
2. The Personal Legend – Central idea: every person has a destiny, and
true fulfillment comes from pursuing it.
3. Alchemy as Metaphor – Just as alchemy transforms metal into gold,
pursuing one’s dream transforms the self.
 4. Global Appeal – Translated into 80+ languages, inspiring millions
worldwide as a modern fable of self-discovery.
5. Criticism & Praise – Some critics call it simplistic, but its allegorical
clarity and motivational tone have given it lasting cultural impact.
Background
 Written by Paulo Coelho in Portuguese in 1988.
 Initially published by a small Brazilian press, it sold poorly; Coelho’s
perseverance helped it gain international recognition.
 Now one of the best-selling books of all time (over 65 million copies).
 Influenced by Coelho’s own spiritual journey and fascination with
mysticism, omens, and alchemy.
9. Bartholomew Fair (1614)
Background
 First performance: 1614 by the Lady Elizabeth’s Men at the Hope
Theatre, Bankside, London.
 Context: The play satirizes contemporary London society through the
microcosm of Bartholomew Fair (a real, raucous annual fair held in
Smithfield).
 Form: Comedy in prose and verse, sprawling and episodic.
 Themes: Hypocrisy, greed, moral corruption, Puritanism, justice, and
human folly.
Plot Summary
The action unfolds during a single day at the Bartholomew Fair, where
people from different classes converge. The fair acts as a chaotic space of
commerce, entertainment, and moral testing.
1. Justice Overdo’s mission:
o Justice Adam Overdo, a self-important magistrate, disguises
himself to secretly observe and punish “enormities” at the fair. His
pomposity and blindness to his own hypocrisy are central to the
satire.
2. Bartholomew Cokes and Grace:
 o Young, gullible Bartholomew Cokes, accompanied by his intended
bride Grace Wellborn and her guardian Wasp, comes to the fair.
o He is repeatedly cheated—loses his money, goods, and even Grace
is almost lured away—showing how foolish innocence fares in
corrupt society.
3. Littlewit’s puppet show:
o John Littlewit, a proctor, schemes to bring his wife Win (Win-the-
fight) to the fair so she can indulge her pregnancy craving for pork.
o His main pride, however, is that he has written a puppet play to be
staged at the fair.
4. Quarlous and Winwife:
o Two gallants who compete for Grace’s hand. Their witty
maneuverings contrast with Cokes’ stupidity.
5. Zeal-of-the-Land Busy (the Puritan):
o A bombastic Puritan who rails against the fair’s “ungodliness.”
o He attacks the puppet show as sinful, but the puppets themselves
hilariously silence him by pointing out that, being puppets, they
have no gender, and so cannot be accused of sexual immorality.
6. Fairground cheats and traders:
o Ursula the pig-woman (huge, sweaty, selling roast pork), Lantern
Leatherhead (a hobby-horse seller), and various tricksters represent
the vice and carnivalesque energy of the fair.
o They continually swindle gullible visitors.
Ending:
By the end, Justice Overdo is himself exposed as a fool, Cokes remains duped,
and the fairground characters triumph in their anarchy. The puppet show closes
the play, mocking the idea of moral authority.
Main Characters
 Justice Adam Overdo – A magistrate disguised to detect vice; pompous,
hypocritical.
 Bartholomew Cokes – Foolish young man, constantly cheated.
 Grace Wellborn – His betrothed, pursued by others.
  Wasp – Cokes’ guardian, quarrelsome and irritable.
 John Littlewit – Proctor, proud author of the puppet play.
 Win-the-fight Littlewit (Win) – His wife, craving pork.
 Zeal-of-the-Land Busy – Fanatical Puritan preacher, ridiculed for
hypocrisy.
 Quarlous & Winwife – Suitors to Grace, witty and scheming.
 Ursula – A grotesque pig-woman, symbol of gluttony and filth.
 Lantern Leatherhead – Hobby-horse seller, linked to the puppet show.
Significance
 Satire of Jacobean society:
The play brings together Puritans, gallants, magistrates, tradesmen, and
fools—all mocked for greed, hypocrisy, or folly.
 Carnivalesque inversion:
Inspired by Rabelais and popular festivity traditions, Jonson presents the
fair as a world turned upside down where authority is mocked and the
low triumph over the high.
 Critique of Puritanism:
Through Busy, Jonson ridicules Puritan hostility to theater and festive
culture.
 Social microcosm:
The fair is a metaphor for London itself—corrupt, noisy, vibrant, and
uncontainable by moral or legal authority.
 Theatrical self-reflection:
The puppet show is a play-within-the-play, highlighting theater’s role as
entertainment and social commentary.

10. Catiline His Conspiracy (1611)

Background
 Catiline His Conspiracy is a tragedy written by Ben Jonson and first
performed in 1611 by the King’s Men at Blackfriars.
  The play is based on the Catilinarian conspiracy (63 BCE) in Rome,
where the senator Lucius Sergius Catilina plotted to overthrow the
Republic.
 Jonson drew heavily from Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae and Cicero’s
orations (In Catilinam).
 It reflects Jacobean concerns with treason, rebellion, corruption, and
political stability.
 The play was not as popular as Jonson’s comedies (Volpone, The
Alchemist), but it remains significant as an attempt to blend classical
Roman history with English stagecraft.
Plot Summary
The play dramatizes the conspiracy of Catiline against the Roman Republic:
1. Exposition:
o Catiline, a corrupt noble, is portrayed as ambitious, violent, and
morally degenerate.
o He is aided by co-conspirators (Lentulus, Cethegus, Curius, etc.),
all discontented aristocrats.
o His wife, Aurelia, supports his cause with fierce devotion.
2. The Conspiracy:
o Catiline plans to assassinate key senators, burn Rome, and seize
power.
o He recruits desperate men, promising wealth and new social order.
o The conspirators swear loyalty through blood sacrifices.
3. Cicero’s Intervention:
o Cicero, the consul, discovers the plot.
o He delivers eloquent speeches (drawn from his historical orations)
warning the Senate.
o Cicero embodies patriotism, duty, and republican virtue.
4. Downfall of Catiline:
o Cicero exposes the conspiracy before the Senate.
 o Many conspirators are arrested and executed without trial (a
controversial historical decision).
o Catiline flees Rome, gathers an army, and makes a last stand.
5. Conclusion:
o Catiline is defeated in battle and dies heroically but dishonorably.
o The Republic is preserved, but Jonson leaves open questions about
morality, justice, and the fragility of Rome’s system.
Main Characters
 Lucius Sergius Catiline (Catilina) – Ambitious, corrupt Roman noble,
the leader of the conspiracy.
 Aurelia – Catiline’s loyal and passionate wife, who encourages his
rebellion.
 Lentulus, Cethegus, Curius, Autronius, etc. – Co-conspirators,
disaffected aristocrats, symbolizing Rome’s moral decay.
 Cicero – Roman consul, defender of the Republic, orator who exposes
Catiline’s plot.
 Cato – Stoic senator, voice of morality and firmness, supports Cicero.
 Caesar (Julius Caesar) – Appears as a young ambitious senator,
showing early shades of his later dominance.
 Senators & Roman citizens – Represent the broader Republic and its
vulnerability.
Literary and Historical Significance
1. Political Relevance:
o Resonated with Jacobean England’s fears of treason (e.g., the
Gunpowder Plot of 1605).
o Cicero’s defense of the Republic paralleled King James I’s concern
for political order.
2. Use of Sources:
o Jonson closely follows Sallust and Cicero, even inserting long
speeches almost verbatim.
 o This made the play historically dense but less theatrically dynamic
for audiences.
3. Thematic Concerns:
o Ambition vs. Republic stability – Catiline as a warning against
unchecked ambition.
o Corruption and moral decay – Rome’s elite portrayed as
decadent.
o Power of oratory – Cicero’s rhetoric is shown as the true weapon
against treason.
o Justice vs. Expediency – Cicero’s extrajudicial executions raise
ethical questions.
4. Reception:
o Considered one of Jonson’s more scholarly but less popular
plays.
o Admired for its erudition but criticized for being too rhetorical and
static compared to his lively comedies.
Final Notes on His Plays
 Jonson divided his works in the 1616 Folio (first collected edition of
plays, like Shakespeare’s Folio) into Comedies, Tragedies, and
Masques.
 His comedies are still celebrated for urban satire, witty dialogue, and
moral force.
 His tragedies, though less successful, show his classical rigor and moral
seriousness.