GET 211 (Computing and Software Engineering)

By Engr. Dr. Ekene Nworabude

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

(DATA) (INFORMATION)
Fig 1: Schematic diagram to define a computer
Data: The term data refers to facts about a person, object or place, e.g. name, age, complexion, school,
class, height etc.
Information: This is referred to as processed data or a meaningful statement, e.g. net pay of workers,
examination results of students, list of successful candidates in an examination or interview etc.
Methods of Data Processing
The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for data processing over the years:
• The Manual method,
• The Mechanical method and
• The Computer method
The Manual Method: The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen, pencil
and the like. These devices, machines or tools facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying,
manipulating, sorting and presenting data or information. The manual data processing operations entail
considerable manual efforts. Thus, the manual method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring, frustrating and
time consuming. Furthermore, the processing of data by the manual method is likely to be affected by
human errors. When there are errors, then the reliability, accuracy, neatness, tidiness, and validity of the
data would be in doubt. The manual method does not allow for the processing of large volumes of data on
a regular and timely basis
The Mechanical Method: The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such
as the typewriter, roneo machines, adding machines and the like. These machines facilitate human efforts
in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting and presenting data or information. The mechanical
operations are basically routine in nature. There is virtually no creative thinking. Mechanical operations are
noisy, hazardous, error prone and untidy. The mechanical method does not allow for the processing of large
volumes of data continuously and timely.
The Computer Method: The computer method of carrying out data processing has the following major
features:
• Data can be steadily and continuously processed
• The operations are practically not noisy
• There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and permanent.
• Errors can be easily and neatly corrected.
• Output reports are usually very neat, decent and can be produced in various forms such as adding
graphs, diagrams and pictures etc.
 • Accuracy and reliability are highly enhanced
• Below are further attributes of a computer which make an indispensable tool for humans.
Characteristics of a Computer:
• Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can be very
fast.
• Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors committed in
computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There are in-built error
detecting schemes in the computer.
• Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions. This
capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where
K=1024 memory locations.
• Automatic: Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it can run automatically each time it is
opened. The individual has little or no instruction to give again.
• Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every
time even if ten million jobs are involved. • Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can
be reduced to logical steps. Modern computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like
on-line processing, multi- programming, real time processing etc.
The Computing System: The computing system is made up of the computer system, the user and the
environment in which the computer is operated.
The Computer System: The computer system is made up of the hardware and the software.
The Hardware: The computer hardware comprises the input unit, the processing unit and the output unit.
The input unit comprises those media through which data is fed into the computer. Examples include the
keyboard, mouse, joystick, trackball and scanner.
The processing unit is made up of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), the control unit and the main
memory. The main memory also known as the primary memory is made up of the Read Only Memory
(ROM) and the Random Access Memory (RAM).
The output unit is made up of those media through which data, instructions for processing the data
(program), and the result of the processing operation are displayed for the user to see. Examples of the
output unit are the monitor (Visual Display Unit) and the printer.
Software: Computer software is the series of instructions that enable the computer to perform a task or
group of tasks. A program is made up of a group of instructions to perform a task. Series of programs linked
together make up software. Computer programs could be categorised into system software, utility software,
and application programs.
Computer Users: Computer users are the different categories of personnel that operate the computer. We
have expert users and casual users. The expert users could be further categorised into computer engineers,
computer programmers and computer operators.
The Computing Environment: The computing environment includes the building housing the other
elements of the computing system namely the computer and the users, the furniture, auxiliary devices such
as the voltage stabiliser, the Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS), the fans, the air conditioners etc.
The schematic diagram of the computing system is presented in Fig. 2a. to Fig. 2d.
A Schematic diagram of the computing system

Computer software

Computer users
Assignment
1. a) What is a computer?
b) What are the advantages of the computer method of data processing over the manual and
mechanical methods of data processing.
2. Draw a schematic diagram of a computing system and describe each of the components.
2.0 Categories of Computers
Although there are no industry standards, computers are generally classified in the following ways:
2.1 Classification Based on Signal Type: There are basically three types of electronic computers. These
are the Digital, Analog and Hybrid computers.
A. The Digital Computer This represents its variables in the form of digits. The data it deals with,
whether representing numbers, letters or other symbols, are converted into binary form on input to
the computer. The data undergoes a processing after which the binary digits are converted back to
alpha numeric form for output for human use. Because of the fact that business applications like
inventory control, invoicing and payroll deal with discrete values (separate, disunited,
discontinuous), they are best processed with digital computers. As a result of this, digital computers
are mostly used in commercial and business places today.
B. The Analog Computer: It measures rather than counts. This type of computer sets up a model of
a system. The common type represents its variables in terms of electrical voltage and sets up circuit
analog to the equation connecting the variables. The answer can be either by using a voltmeter to
read the value of the variable required, or by feeding the voltage into a plotting device. Analog
computers hold data in the form of physical variables rather than numerical quantities. In theory,
analog computers give an exact answer because the answer has not been approximated to the
nearest digit. Whereas, when we try to obtain the answers using a digital voltmeter, we often find
that the accuracy is less than that which could have been obtained from an analog computer.
It is almost never used in business systems. It is used by scientists and engineers to solve systems
of partial differential equations. It is also used in controlling and monitoring of systems in such
areas as hydrodynamics and rocketry in production. There are two useful properties of this
computer once it is programmed:
• It is simple to change the value of a constant or coefficient and study the effect of such
changes.
• It is possible to link certain variables to a time pulse to study changes with time as a
variable, and chart the result on an X-Y plotter.
C. The Hybrid Computer: In some cases, the computer user may wish to obtain the output from an
analog computer as processed by a digital computer or vice versa. To achieve this, he set up a hybrid
machine where the two are connected and the analog computer may be regarded as a peripheral of
the digital computer. In such a situation, a hybrid system attempts to gain the advantage of both the
digital and the analog elements in the same machine. This kind of machine is usually a special-
purpose device which is built for a specific task. It needs a conversion element which accepts analog
inputs, and outputs digital values. Such converters are called digitisers. There is a need for a
converter from analog to digital also. It has the advantage of giving real-time response on a
continuous basis. Complex calculations can be dealt with by the digital elements, thereby requiring
a large memory, and giving accurate results after programming. They are mainly used in aerospace
and process control applications.
2.2 Classification by Purpose: Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as
either special purpose or general purpose.
A. Special-Purpose Computers: A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a
restricted class of problems. Such computers may even be designed and built to handle only one
job. In such machines, the steps or operations that the computer follows may be built into the
hardware. Most of the computers used for military purposes fall into this class. Other examples of
special purpose computers include:
• Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems.
 • Computers designed for tracking airplanes or missiles
• Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil refinery, chemical
manufacture, steel processing and power generation
• Computers used as robots in factories like vehicle assembly plants and glass industries.
General Attributes of Special-Purpose Computers:
• Special-purpose computers are usually very efficient for the tasks for which they are
specially designed.
• They are very much less complex than the general-purpose computers.
• The simplicity of the circuiting stems from the fact that provision is made only for limited
facilities.
• They are very much cheaper than the general-purpose type since they involve fewer
components and are less complex
B. General-Purpose Computers: General-purpose computers are computers designed to handle a
wide range of problems. Theoretically, a general-purpose computer can be adequate by means of
some easily alterable instructions to handle any problems that can be solved by computation. In
practice, however, there are limitations imposed by memory size, speed and the type of input/output
devices. Examples of areas where general purpose computers are employed include the following:
• Payroll
• Banking
• Billing
• Sales analysis
• Cost accounting
• Manufacturing scheduling
• Inventory control
General Attributes of General-Purpose Computer
• General-purpose computers are more flexible than special purpose computers. Thus, the
former can handle a wide spectrum of problems.
• They are less efficient than the special-purpose computers due to such problems as the
following:
• They have inadequate storage
• They have low operating speed
• Coordination of the various tasks and subsections may take time
• General-purpose computers are more complex than special purpose computers.
2.3 Classification of Computers According to Capacity: In the past, the capacity of computers was
measured in terms of physical size. Today, however, physical size is not a good measure of capacity because
modern technology has made it possible to achieve compactness. A better measure of capacity today is the
volume of work that a computer can handle. The volume of work that a given computer handles is closely
tied to the cost and to the memory size of the computer. Therefore, most authorities today accept rental
price as the standard for ranking computers. Here, both memory size and cost shall be used to rank (classify)
computers into three main categories as follows: Microcomputers, Medium/mini/small computers, Large
computer/mainframes.
A. Microcomputers: Microcomputers, also known as single board computers, are the cheapest class
of computers. In the microcomputer, we do not have a Central Processing Unit (CPU) as we have
in the larger computers. Rather we have a microprocessor chip as the main data processing unit.
They are the cheapest and smallest, and can operate under normal office conditions. Examples are
IBM, APPLE, COMPAQ, Hewlett Packard (HP), Dell and Toshiba, etc.
 Different Types of Personal Computers (Microcomputers): Normally, personal computers are
placed on the desk; hence they are referred to as desktop personal computers. Still other types are
available under the categories of personal computers. They are:
• Laptop Computers: These are small size types that are battery- operated. The screen is
used to cover the system while the keyboard is installed flat on the system unit. They could
be carried about like a box when closed after operation and can be operated in vehicles
while on a journey.
• Notebook Computers: These are like laptop computers but smaller in size. Though small,
the notebook computer comprises all the components of a full system.
• Palmtop Computers: The palmtop computer is far smaller in size. All the components are
complete as in any of the above, but it is made smaller so that it can be held on the palm.
Uses of the Personal Computer
• It can be used to produce documents like memos, reports, letters and briefs.
• It can be used to calculate budgets and accounting tasks
• It can analyse numeric functions
• It can create illustrations
• It can be used for electronic mails
• It can help in making schedules and planning projects
• It can assist in searching for specific information from lists or from reports.
Advantages of the Personal Computer
• The personal computer is versatile: it can be used in any establishment
• It has faster speed for processing data
• It can deal with several data at a time
• It can attend to several users at the same time, thereby being able to process several jobs at
a time
• It is capable of storing several data
• Operating the personal computer gives less fatigue
• It is possible to network personal computers, that is, linking of two or more computers.
Disadvantages of the Personal Computer
• The personal computer is costly to maintain
• It is very fragile and complex to handle
• It requires special skill to operate
• With inventions and innovations everyday, the personal computer is at the risk of becoming
obsolete
• It can lead to unemployment, especially in less developed countries
• Some computers cannot function properly without the aid of a cooling system, e.g. air
conditioners or fans in some locations.
B. Mini Computers: Mini computers have memory capacity in the range ‘128- 256 Kbytes’ and are
also not expensive but reliable and smaller in size compare to mainframe. They were first
introduced in 1965; when DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) built the PDP – 8. Other mini
computers are WANG VS.
C. Mainframe Computers: The mainframe computers, often called number crunchers have memory
capacity of the order of ‘4 Kbytes’, and are very expensive. They can execute up to 100 MIPS
(Meanwhile Instructions per Second). They have large systems and are used by many people for a
variety of purposes.
Assignment
1. Classify computers based on type of signal.
2. Based on the signal being processed, to what category each of these computing equipment belongs:
• petrol pump
• thermometer
• cellphone
• anti-aircraft radar control in the military
• weather forecasting equipment at the meteorological station.
3.0 Data Processing
What Is Data Processing? Data in its raw form is not useful to any organization. Data processing is the
method of collecting raw data and translating it into usable information. It is usually performed in a step-
by-step process by a team of data scientists and data engineers in an organization. The raw data is collected,
filtered, sorted, processed, analyzed, stored, and then presented in a readable format.
Data processing is essential for organizations to create better business strategies and increase their
competitive edge. By converting the data into readable formats like graphs, charts, and documents,
employees throughout the organization can understand and use the data.
3.1 Stages of the Data Processing Cycle: The data processing cycle consists of steps to convert your
raw data into actionable and meaningful information. Generally, Data Processing Cycle consists of the
following SIX stages.
A. Data collection
B. Data preparation
C. Data input
D. Data Processing
E. Data output
F. Data storage
Step 1: Collection
The collection of raw data is the first step of the data processing cycle. The type of raw data
collected has a huge impact on the output produced. Hence, raw data should be gathered from
defined and accurate sources so that the subsequent findings are valid and usable. Raw data can
include monetary figures, website cookies, profit/loss statements of a company, user behavior, etc.
Step 2: Preparation
Data preparation or data cleaning is the process of sorting and filtering the raw data to remove
unnecessary and inaccurate data. Raw data is checked for errors, duplication, miscalculations or
missing data, and transformed into a suitable form for further analysis and processing. This is done
to ensure that only the highest quality data is fed into the processing unit.
The purpose of this step to remove bad data (redundant, incomplete, or incorrect data) so as to
begin assembling high-quality information so that it can be used in the best possible way
for business intelligence.
Step 3: Input
In this step, the raw data is converted into machine readable form and fed into the processing unit.
This can be in the form of data entry through a keyboard, scanner or any other input source.
Step 4: Data Processing
In this step, the raw data is subjected to various data processing methods using machine learning
and artificial intelligence algorithms to generate a desirable output. This step may vary slightly
from process to process depending on the source of data being processed (data lakes, online
databases, connected devices, etc.) and the intended use of the output.
Step 5: Output
The data is finally transmitted and displayed to the user in a readable form like graphs, tables, vector files,
audio, video, documents, etc. This output can be stored and further processed in the next data processing
cycle.
Step 6: Storage
The last step of the data processing cycle is storage, where data and metadata are stored for further use.
This allows for quick access and retrieval of information whenever needed, and also allows it to be used as
input in the next data processing cycle directly.
4.0 Memory unit: - Its function into store programs and data. It is basically to two types
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory
Word: In computer architecture, a word is a unit of data of a defined bit length that can be addressed and
moved between storage and the computer processor. Usually, the defined bit length of a word is equivalent
to the width of the computer's data bus so that a word can be moved in a single operation from storage to a
processor register. For any computer architecture with an eight-bit byte, the word will be some multiple of
eight bits. In IBM's evolutionary System/360 architecture, a word is 32 bits, or four contiguous eight-bit
bytes. In Intel's PC processor architecture, a word is 16 bits, or two contiguous eight-bit bytes. A word can
contain a computer instruction, a storage address, or application data that is to be manipulated (for example,
added to the data in another word space).
The number of bits in each word is known as word length. Word length refers to the number of bits
processed by the CPU in one go. With modern general purpose computers, word size can be 16 bits to 64
bits.
The time required to access one word is called the memory access time. The small, fast, RAM units are
called caches. They are tightly coupled with the processor and are often contained on the same IC chip to
achieve high performance.
1. Primary memory: - Is the one exclusively associated with the processor and operates at the
electronics speeds programs must be stored in this memory while they are being executed. The
memory contains a large number of semiconductors storage cells. Each capable of storing one bit
of information. These are processed in a group of fixed site called word. To provide easy access to
a word in memory, a distinct address is associated with each word location. Addresses are numbers
that identify memory location.
Number of bits in each word is called word length of the computer. Programs must reside in the
memory during execution. Instructions and data can be written into the memory or read out under
the control of processor. Memory in which any location can be reached in a short and fixed amount
of time after specifying its address is called random access memory (RAM).
2. Secondary memory: - Is used where large amounts of data & programs have to be stored,
particularly information that is accessed infrequently. Examples: - Magnetic disks & tapes, optical
disks (ie CD-ROM’s), floppies etc.,
5.0 Register: It is a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must be represented in a
register before it can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must
be in registers, and the result is also placed in a register. (The register can contain the address of a memory
location where data is stored rather than the actual data itself.)
The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help determine the power and
speed of a CPU. For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each register is 32 bits wide. Therefore, each
CPU instruction can manipulate 32 bits of data. In high-level languages, the compiler is responsible for
translating high-level operations into low-level operations that access registers.
Computer instructions are the basic components of a machine language program. They are also known as
macro operations, since each one is comprised of sequences of micro operations. Each instruction initiates
a sequence of micro operations that fetch operands from registers or memory, possibly perform arithmetic,
logic, or shift operations, and store results in registers or memory
Instructions are encoded as binary instruction codes. Each instruction code contains of a operation code, or
opcode, which designates the overall purpose of the instruction (e.g. add, subtract, move, input, etc.). The
number of bits allocated for the opcode determined how many different instructions the architecture
supports. In addition to the opcode, many instructions also contain one or more operands, which indicate
where in registers or memory the data required for the operation is located. For example, and add instruction
requires two operands, and a not instruction requires one.
The opcode and operands are most often encoded as unsigned binary numbers in order to minimize the
number of bits used to store them. For example, a 4-bit opcode encoded as a binary number could represent
up to 16 different operations. The control unit is responsible for decoding the opcode and operand bits in
the instruction register, and then generating the control signals necessary to drive all other hardware in the
CPU to perform the sequence of micro operations that comprise the instruction.
The instruction register (IR):- Holds the instructions that are currently being executed. Its output is
available for the control circuits which generates the timing signals that control the various processing
elements in one execution of instruction.
The program counter PC:- This is another specialized register that keeps track of execution of a program.
It contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed. Besides IR and PC, there
are n-general purpose registers R0 through Rn-1.
The other two registers which facilitate communication with memory are: -
1. MAR – (Memory Address Register):- It holds the address of the location to be accessed.
2. MDR – (Memory Data Register):- It contains the data to be written into or read out of the address location.
Operating steps are
1. Programs reside in the memory & usually get these through the I/P unit.
2. Execution of the program starts when the PC is set to point at the first instruction of the program.
3. Contents of PC are transferred to MAR and a Read Control Signal is sent to the memory.
4. After the time required to access the memory elapses, the address word is read out of the memory and
loaded into the MDR.
5. Now contents of MDR are transferred to the IR & now the instruction is ready to be decoded and
executed.
6. If the instruction involves an operation by the ALU, it is necessary to obtain the required operands.
7. An operand in the memory is fetched by sending its address to MAR & Initiating a read cycle.
8. When the operand has been read from the memory to the MDR, it is transferred from MDR to the ALU.
9. After one or two such repeated cycles, the ALU can perform the desired operation.
10. If the result of this operation is to be stored in the memory, the result is sent to MDR.
11. Address of location where the result is stored is sent to MAR & a write cycle is initiated.
12. The contents of PC are incremented so that PC points to the next instruction that is to be executed.