ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EARTH SCIENCES

MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY AND GENESIS OF MEKANE SELAM IRON
OCCURRENCE IN TEWA AREA, NORTHERN ETHIOPIA.

BY
Belayneh Digafe Tulu

A thesis submitted to the School of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa

University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Sciences in Resource Geology (Mineral Deposits).
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EARTH SCIENCES
MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY AND GENESIS OF MEKANE
SELAM IRON OCCURRENCE IN TEWA AREA, NORTHERN
ETHIOPIA.
By
Belayneh Digafe

Advisor: Dr. Worash Getaneh

Co-Advisor: Dr. Balemuwal Atnafu

A thesis submitted to the School of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa

University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Sciences in Resource Geology (Mineral Deposits).

October, 2 / 2020

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EARTH SCIENCES

MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY AND GENESIS OF MEKANE

SELAM IRON OCCURRENCE IN TEWA AREA, NORTHERN
ETHIOPIA.
By
Belayneh Digafe

Approved by the examining committee

Dr. Balemual Atnafu ______________ ___________

Head, School of Earth Science Signature Date
Dr. Worash Getaneh _______________ ____________
Advisor Signature Date
Dr. Balemual Atnafu ________________ ___________
Co- Advisor Signature Date
Prof. Gezahegn Yirgu __________________ ___________
Examiner Signature Date
Prof. Solomon Tadesse _________________ ___________
Examiner Signature Date

October, 2 / 2020

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

 Declaration of Originality

This thesis work is about the geologic setting and genesis of the Mekane Selam iron
occurrence which is my original master’s degree under the supervision of Dr. Worash
Getaneh and Dr. Balemuwal Atnafu School of Earth Sciences Addis Ababa University. I
want to declare that this research work has not been presented or submitted for any degree
or diploma at any University (institutions). All relevant source materials used for this thesis
work has been respectfully acknowledged.

Belayneh Digafe ____________________ October, 2 / 2020

Signature Date
To the best of knowledge the above research work declaration by the candidate is correct
and it has been submitted for examination with our approval as advisors of the school in
the University.

Dr. Worash Getaneh (Advisor) _______________ ______________

Signature Date

Dr. Balemuwal Atnafu (Co-advisor) ______________ ______________

Signature Date
 Abstract

Iron is the fourth abundant metal in Earth’s crust and its ore minerals are concentrated as
hematite, goethite, magnetite, siderite, illmenite and other sulfides. The Mekane Selam iron
mineralization is part of the Northwestern plateau that bounded by Axum–Adigrat and
Ambo lineaments of the N and SW. Mineralogy, geochemistry and genesis studies are main
objective of this work. Geologic field work and mapping, X-ray diffraction, ore
petrographic study of ore, geochemical analysis of host rock were applied methodologies.
XRD and ore microscopic study reveals hematite, goethite, magnetite, kaolinite anatase and
quartz are the principal ore minerals and associated gangue phases of ore while quartz and
feldspars are petrographic composition of the host. Chemical analysis of major constituent
show significant enrichment of SiO2, Al2O3 in the host and Fe2O3 in the ore with strong
depletion of K2O, Na2O, MnO, MgO, CaO and P2O5. High value of CIA (88.46-99.44) with
depleted content of K2O and Na2O suggests the area is subjected to intensive weathering
process. Chondurite-normalized REE pattern show enrichment in LREE and relatively
smooth pattern of HREE. The pattern is consistent with the characteristics of upper
continental crust, protholith of sediments and weathered terrestrial is iron source. Positive
Ce and negative Eu anomalies of analyzed samples suggest iron reprecipitation is occurring
in weathered (supergene) oxidation leaching of REE. It indicates digenetic alteration and
the absence of hydrothermal fluid inputs during mineralization. Concentrated detrital
derived elements of Zr, Al and Nb with the oolithc textures of ore samples are the
characteristic of digenetic modification in iron formation. The XRD results of goethite,
hematite and kaolinites minerals indicate the genesis of Mekane Selam iron occurrence is
laterite. SiO2-Fe2O3-Al2O3 ternary plot of ore and host rock samples show the ore is altered
to hematite due to low–strong degree of lateritization while the host rock is as a result of
kaolinization to kaolinite. Field observation and exposure measurement, mineralogical and
geochemical data analysis suggests the iron occurrence of the area is classified as an
indicated resource. Surface weathering, REE leaching, transportation and other physico-
chemical conditions enrich iron. The digenesis and sediment recrystallization are
significant iron ore formation and modification of the area.
Key words: Iron ore Genesis Geologic setting Laterite
Continental crust Geochemical Mineralogy

I
 Acknowledgment

First of all, I would like to thanks for Geological Survey of Ethiopia who facilitates the
opportunity to attend my master’s degree at Addis Ababa University. I have a grate felling
of gratitude to my advisor Dr. Worash Getaneh for his guidance, encouragement help and
constructive suggestions with comments and advices. I am on acknowledging to Dr.
Balemuwal Atnafu head of the School of Earth Science and co- advisor of this work.
I want to express my deepest gratitude to Mr. Amdemichael Zafu for his helpful work of
whole rock geochemical analysis at Belgium University of Libre de Bruxelles laboratoir
G-Time Department Geosciences, Environnement et Societe.
I am grate fully thanks to Dr. David Burianek a Geologist who made the XRD mineralogical
analysis of iron ore and associated rock at Czech Republic Geological Survey XRD
laboratory center which is inaccessible in Ethiopia by the time.
I am also, convey my acknowledgement to my friends of Mr. Getnet Gezahegn and Abate
Asen those who guided and encourageous help through their important comments and
reviewing this work. My thanks would have been goes to Mr. Abisa Dugassa director of
mineral exploration and evaluation directorate for his advice and facilitating suitable
conditions for the field work activity.
Finally I would like to continue my grateful thanks to Abate Amsalu, Tewodrose Tilahun
and Wubante Fekadu those play a great role during the field work conducted for geological
mapping and sample collection by taking the possible field risks.
Lastly my glory is to the Mekane Selam administration office and all my friends and
families those directly or indirectly pay necessary sacrifice for this research work next to
“Almighty of God”.

II
 Dedication

This research work is dedicating to my beloved friends and family.

III
 Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................... I

Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................... II

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... IV

List of figures .............................................................................................................. VII

List of Tables ............................................................................................................... IX

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

1.1 General back ground............................................................................................ 1

1.1.1 Location and accessibility .............................................................................. 2

1.1.2 Physiography and drainage ........................................................................... 3

1.1.3 Climate and vegetation .................................................................................. 5

1.1.4 Population and settlement ............................................................................. 6

1.2 Statement of the problem ..................................................................................... 7

1.3 Research Objective ............................................................................................... 8

1.3.1 General Objective .......................................................................................... 8

1.3.2 Specific Objective........................................................................................... 8

1.4 Methodology ......................................................................................................... 8

1.4.1 Field work and Geological Mapping ............................................................. 8

1.4.2 Laboratory test and chemical analysis ........................................................ 10

1.4.3. Petrographic study ...................................................................................... 12

1.5 Significance of the research ............................................................................... 13

1.6 Research overview .............................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 14

2 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 14

2.1 Pervious work ..................................................................................................... 15

2.1.1 Previous study on iron occurrence of Ethiopia ........................................... 16

IV
 2.2 Process of iron ore formation............................................................................. 18

2.3 Exploration ......................................................................................................... 18

2.4 Processing ........................................................................................................... 19

2.5 Mining................................................................................................................. 21

CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 21

3 Regional geology and tectonic setting ...................................................................... 21

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 21

3.2 Regional geology ................................................................................................. 22

3.3 Tectonic setting ................................................................................................... 27

CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................... 28

4 Local geology............................................................................................................. 28

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 29

4.1 Geology of the study area ................................................................................... 29

4.2 Limestone............................................................................................................ 30

4.2.1 Petrography of limestone ............................................................................. 31

4.3 Mudstone–shale .................................................................................................. 33

4.3.1 Petrography of mudstone ............................................................................ 33

4.4 Sandstone ............................................................................................................ 34

4.4.1 Thin section descriptions ............................................................................. 37

4.5 Volcanic lava flow .............................................................................................. 42

4.5.1 Petrography of basalt................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 45

5 The Mekane Selam iron occurrence......................................................................... 45

5.1 Nature of mineralization and the ore bodies ..................................................... 47

5.2 Host rock ............................................................................................................ 50

5.3 Ore and gangue mineralogy ............................................................................... 50

5.4 Geologic history .................................................................................................. 59

V
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................ 61

6 Geochemistry of the sedimentary rocks ................................................................... 61

Introductions ............................................................................................................... 61

6.1 Geochemistry of the host rock ........................................................................... 62

6.2 Geochemistry of the iron ore ............................................................................. 68

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 68

CHAPTER SEVENE ................................................................................................... 71

7 Discussions ................................................................................................................ 71

7.1 Geologic setting .................................................................................................. 77

7.2 Interpretation ..................................................................................................... 79

7.3 Genesis of iron .................................................................................................... 81

7.4 Recourse of the area ........................................................................................... 84

CHAPTER EIGHT...................................................................................................... 86

8 Conclusion and recommendation ............................................................................. 86

8.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 86

8.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................ 88

References .................................................................................................................... 89

VI
 List of figures

Figure 1. Location and accessibility map of the area. ................................................................ 3

Figure 2. DEM physiographic map of the study and surrounding area....................................... 4
Figure 3.Dranage pattern of the study and surroundings. .......................................................... 5
Figure 4. Weather and climate conditions of Mekane Selam area. ............................................. 6
Figure 5. Distribution of iron occurrence in Ethiopia. ..............................................................17
Figure 6. Basic iron ore interrelated operational stapes according to (Upadhyay et al., 2009 and
Nomura et al., 2015). .................................................................................................................20
Figure 7. Flow sheet for iron and steel extraction process according to (Kumar, 2003 and Spoerl,
2016). ........................................................................................................................................20
Figure 8. Regional stratigraphy modified from (Getaneh Assefa, 1991). ...................................26
Figure 9. Regional geological map modified from (GSE, 2015). ...............................................27
Figure 10.Lithological map of the study area (A) and geologic cross section along A-B (B)......30
Figure 11. Field photographs of fossiliferous (A) and non - fossiliferous (B) limestone. ............31
Figure 12.photomicrograph of MSL4 (A) PPL, (B) XPL and MSL6 (C) PPL, (D) XPL for limestone
with 10X magnification power. ...................................................................................................33
Figure 13.MSh1 (A) XPL, (B) PPL and MSh2 (C) XPL, (D) PPL observation for mudstone with
10X magnification. .....................................................................................................................34
Figure 14. Field photographs of top and lower sandstone section and the ore body. .................36
Figure 15.Section log taken from the sandstone unit exposed below the basalt and near the road
cut. ............................................................................................................................................37
Figure 16.MSd5Alteration at the boundary (A) and filled space by secondary minerals (B) in XPL
observation and 10X magnification. ...........................................................................................40
Figure 17.MSd3 angular – sub angular and sorted arkose sandstone under XPL (A) and PPL (B).
..................................................................................................................................................40
Figure 18.MSd6 sorted arkose type sandstone in XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation 10X
magnification. ............................................................................................................................41
Figure 19. MSd8 poorly sorted arkose sandstone under XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation with
10X magnification. .....................................................................................................................41
Figure 20.MSd10 moderately sorted arkose type sand under XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation.
..................................................................................................................................................42
Figure 21. Massive to Layered volcanic lavas flows (A) and stratified pyroclastic tuff (B). .......43
Figure 22.XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation of MSa1 and XPL (C) and PPL (D) observation of
MSa5 basalts by 10X magnification power. ................................................................................44
Figure 23.General local stratigraphy of the study area. ............................................................45
VII
Figure 24.Field photographs of laterite (A), massive – oolitic (B) and inter bedded (C) iron ore of
the study area. ...........................................................................................................................49
Figure 25.Sketched diagram of MSB13 (A) and MSB16 (B) showing mutual grain boundary and
replacement relationship of goethite with hematite and the gangue. ...........................................53
Figure 26.Photomicrographs of platy-hematite crystals MSB2 (A) and MSB13 (B) oolith and
botryoidal feature of Goethite and interlayered hematite ore. .....................................................53
Figure 27.MSB8 (A) and MSB9 (B), Redish – grey brown weathered Goethite replacing the
hematite and anhedral dumpy crystal developed in association to hematite. ...............................54
Figure 28.MSB13 (A) specularite - interlayered hematite (bright) and MSB14 (B) oolith –
botriodal of goethite red, brownish- grey with disseminated magnetite. ......................................54
Figure 29.MSB16 Ooid speculare-pisolitic fabric (A) and acicular or laths crystals fill voids or
fractures regular reflections of hematite and bluish tint of Goethite iron oxides (B). ...................55
Figure 30.XDR diffraction of sample MSB-1 layered – massive iron ore middle part –layered rim.
..................................................................................................................................................56
Figure 31.XRD diffraction of sample MSB-10 iron ore strata bound with hosted sandstone. .....57
Figure 32.XRD diffractions of sample MSB-5 interlayered needle silica with massive iron ore. 57
Figure 33.XRD diffraction value for the sample MS-DB3 weathered iron ore. ..........................57
Figure 34.XRD diffraction value of the sample MS-LW massive - oolitic iron ore. ....................58
Figure 35. Hypothetically sketched for geologic history and model of the ore deposit. ..............61
Figure 36. REE pattern for the iron ore, the host rock and surrounding fine sediments. .............67
Figure 37. Multi element distribution for both iron ore and host rock samples. .........................67
Figure 38. Liner plots of geochemical data for major oxides of both iron ore and host rock......74
Figure 39.Ternary Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 plot showing different degree of laterizarion for iron bearing
rock after (Shellmann, 1986). .....................................................................................................76
Figure 40.Plot of Th vs U to show the source of sediments after (McLennan et al., 1993). ........79
Figure 41.Correlated plot for Si- Qtz and Al- Kaolinite. ...........................................................80
Figure 42.Ternary plot of SiO2- Al2O3-Fe2O3 showing iron enrichment by laterite after (Gardner
and Walsh, 1996). ......................................................................................................................83
Figure 43. Ternary diagram of SiO2-Al2O3-Fe2O3 showing the genetic relationship after (Dury,
1969; Bassam and Tamar, 1998). ...............................................................................................84

VIII
 List of Tables

Table 1. Recalculated modal compositions of arkose sandstone. ................................38

Table 2. XRD mineralogical analysis of iron ore samples. ..........................................58

Table 3. Chemistry of iron ore samples analyzed for XRD study. ...............................58

Table 4. Major element chemistry of host and associated rock...................................64

Table 5.Trace element chemistry of the host and surrounding rock. ...........................64

Table 6. Major element geochemistry of the iron ore sample. ....................................69

Table 7. Trace element analysis of iron ore samples. .................................................70

Table 8. Estimated resource of Mekane Selam iron occurrence. ...............................85

IX
 List of acronyms
AAU Addis Ababa University
AD Afar depression
AISIC American Iron and Steel Institute Company
BIF Banded Iron Formation
BNB Blue Nile Basin
BNG Blue Nile Gorge
BNR Blue Nile River
CIA Chemical Index Alteration
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DGES Department of Geosciences Environment et Societe
DLS Debre Libanose Sandstone
EIGS Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey
FV Field of Observation
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Geographic positing system
GSCR Geological Survey of Czech Republic
GSE Geological Survey of Ethiopia
Gt Goethite
Hm Hematite
HREE Heavy Rare Earth Element
ICP-AES Induced coupled plasma – emission atomic spectroscopy
ICP-MS Induced coupled plasma -mass spectrometry
ICV Index of Compositional Variation
LILE Large ion Lithophile Elements
LOI Loss on Ignition
LREE Light Rare Earth Element
MER Main Ethiopian Rift
MG Magnetite
NE- SW North East – South West
NW North West
PPL Plain Polarizing Light
REE Rare Earth Elements
SE- NW South East – North West
X
UCC Upper Continental Crust
ULB University of Liber de Bruxelles
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
XPL Cross Polariz Light
XRD X-ray Diffraction

XI
 CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
1.1 General back ground

The Blue Nile basin is one of the main East African sedimentary basins found in Ethiopia
in addition to Mekele, Ogaden, Gambela and Rift basins (Getaneh Assefa, 1991). The
formations filling the basin are unconformable overlain by the volcanics of Northwestern
plateau. The basin is tectonically bounded from the East and South East by escarpments of
the Main Ethiopian Rift and from N and S by Axum-Adigrat and Ambo lineaments
respectively (Gani et al., 2008). The withdrawal of the Mesozoic sea water from the
northern and central parts of Ethiopia started to deposit meandering and braided type of
sediments within Blue Nile Basin. The basin is known by its industrial and energy resources
(Welela Ahmed, 2002). Economic minerals of the basin are cropping out due to erosion
and cross cuttings by rift system together with plateaus of Ethiopia (Mogessi et al., 2002).
The current research work is conducted in the northwestern sub-basin of Blue Nile Basin.
Since, the sub basin and surrounding volcanic traps are less investigated for their metallic
resource, this study will shade light on this gapes. Mekane Selam area is part of Blue Nile
Basin. It is covered by Mesozoic sedimentary and Cenozoic volcanic rocks of sandstone,
limestone, basalt and pyroclastic tuff. Preliminary reports indicate that there is occurrences
of iron mineralization in the vicinity of Mekane Selam (GSE, 2018). However, there is no
detail exploration work yet. Since iron is the most abundant element with more application
in current industry, studies on such vital element is ceucial for economic development of
Ethiopian. Iron has variety of ionic charges and ore minerals. Mainly it occurs in the form
of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), siderite (FeCO3), illmenite (FeTiO3), goethite
(FeO(OH)) or limonite (FeO(OH) *H2O) and sulfides (James, 1966). It is concentrated in
many other sedimentary and magmatic fractionations of mafic rock. Iron has both
chalcophile and lithophile or oxide and sulfide properties (affiliations) so that it can be
concentrated in mafic and felsic varieties (Roob, 2013). Sedimentary rocks can reserve 15%
of total iron formations of economic resources (Bogges, 2006). Their formation is linking
with the Precambrian sedimentary succession and exact source is not yet determined
(Bekker et al., 2010). The Earth’s dynamic environmental, evolutional and geochemical
change affects the style of deposition and mechanisms of iron formation. However, the
endogenic, exogenic and physico-chemical conditions of the environment played vaital role

1
for the formation and corresponding iron deposition. An economic iron ore deposit is
concentrated best within igneous and sedimentary terrains. Precambrian and Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia are considerable hosts for present metallic and industrial
minerals and also have potentials of oil and gas deposit (Kazmine, 1972 and Tadesse
Alemu, 2012). The resource and mineralization is associated with fracturing, quartz veins
– reefs, weakly folded and stratified traps (Kazmine, 1972). For the current and feature
rapid increase of construction industry of Ethiopian, iron is the most possible and available
mineral resources. The developed and civilized world industry use iron ore mineral as a
leading raw material. This very fast growing and expensive industry can be solved through
systematic exploration and production of small and large iron occurrences or resources
rather than importing from abroad. The genesis of Ethiopian iron is viewed as Precambrian
basic intrusion hosted, banded type associated with Precambrian ferruginous quartzite, and
secondary laterite or gossan related (Solomon Tadesse, 2009). From economic point of
view banded or stratified type and late injections of iron dominated basic magma
mineralization process can form an economic concentration of big iron ore deposit
(Solomon Tadesse, 2009; Solomon Tadesse & Worash Getaneh, 2015).

1.1.1 Location and accessibility

The study area is located in the northwestern part of Ethiopia and occupies the northeastern
part of Blue Nile Basin. It is the southwest continuation of Wollo and is part of the south
Wollo zone Borena Woreda, specifically in Tewa locallity. It is bounded by geographic
coordinate of 1181000 – 1190000 Northing and 448000 – 458000 Easting in UTM
(Universal transvers Mercator). The area covers a total of 90 (km2) coverage to investigate
iron occurrence. It can be accessed through 490km main asphalt road from Addis Ababa –
Dejen – Mertule Mariam - Mekane Selam and 60km distance of dry weathered gravel road
to arrive the target area. The second possible access road of the area is 161 km asphalt road
from Addis Ababa – Gebre Guracha and dry weathered (288km) gravel road of Gundo
Meskele - Mekane Selam. The accessibility and location of the study area for iron
occurrence in relation to the surrounding area is illustrated in (Fig.1) below.

2
Figure 1. Location and accessibility map of the area.

1.1.2 Physiography and drainage

As indicated in the location map of (Fig.1), the study area is part of the central highlands
that is characterized by deep gorges and cuts by south to southwest flowing streams. The
sharp cross cut of stream channels and gully erosional surfaces are the main features of the
plateaus and volcanic escarpment. Its physiographic condition can be divided in to different
topographic features of continental plateaus of flood lava flows, mountainous shield
volcanoes, deep gorge and the escarpment of the steep cliffs. The plateau is the main feature
of north Ethiopia that is formed by lava flows. The hills, ridges and deep gorges are also
common topographic features of the area. These geographically important physiographic
features of the area are the outcomes of continuous and deep cutting of Mesozoic
sedimentary carbonate successions and siliclastic sediments. The central shield volcanoes
are parts of Cenozoic volcanics that created the mountainous feature, whereas the cliff
forming escarpment is the outcome of erosion and tectonic faulting. These features are in
association with different Tertiary lava flows of ridges and northern highlands. The plateaus
and highlands occupy the northeastern to east and south east side of the study area. The
main physiographic conditions of the study and surrounding areas are illustrated from the
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) physiographic map below (Fig. 2). The major continuation
3
of rift escarpment and emplacements of the outpouring basic lava flows with pyroclastic
bimodal compositions of the plateau has determined the landscapes of the region. Vertical
gully and east west riverine erosion is the most characterized features of the mountainous
basaltic and pyroclastic topography of the study and surrounding areas.

Genete

Werkamba
Wegdi

Road
Rivers

Elevation

Figure 2. DEM physiographic map of the study and surrounding area.

The drainage pattern of Mekane Selam and surrounding areas shows southward flow of
main Abay River. Following that a numbers of west ward and east ward flowing rivers join
the Abay River. Besides that there are networks of streams which flow northwest to
southwest towards those tributary rivers. The tributaries of the main rivers are able to
enhance its volume seasonally. The east west flow of local streams and rivers are sourced
from the raged elevated topography of Ethiopian highlands and plateau. Drainage systems
is characterized by parallel to sub parallel and sub rectangular pattern. Dendritic and radial
distribution of drainage pattern of the basin and central shield volcanos are the most
characteristics of the drainage pattern as shown from the drainage map of the area below
(Fig.3). The structures and topographic landscapes of the area control the flow direction

4
and distribution of the drainage pattern. Volcanic traps and shields develop dendritic and
concentric to radial drainage system. Parallel to sub- parallel drainage and radial pattern is
the common features of the basin following fractures and weak zones of the sequence.

Main and other tributaries

Gente
Mekane Selam
Werkamba
Wegti

Figure 3.Dranage pattern of the study and surroundings.

1.1.3 Climate and vegetation

The study area is known by its tropical to sub-tropical weather conditions and has the
highest precipitation during June to the end of September. Climatic conditions of the area
are inferred from the climatic graph (Fig.4) and indicated that mid of June to end of
September are the most critical months of rainy time. It is mainly warm to subtropical which
is described by high precipitation with limited infiltration. The area obtains high rain fall
twice per year, in most cases during the end of May to mid of September. It is characterized
by low rain fall from October to end of April and mid of May. The considerable dry time
of the area is interpreted rain fall while the averagely hot temperature condition remains
consistent. The annual maximum rain fall of the area is ranging from 300- 350mm to 1000-
1500mm from the main Ethiopian highlands to the basin and low land areas.

5
(https://en.climate-data.org/africa/ethiopia/amhara/Mekane-Selam-928333/).

Figure 4. Weather and climate conditions of Mekane Selam area.

1.1.4 Population and settlement

The study area is covered by sparsely distributed and short plants. The rocks of study area
are well exposed due to the sparsely vegetation cover. The common vegetation of the area
include bushes, acacia, trees and other desert resistance short plants. The high lands of the
surrounding area are covered by the long trees and some rarely distributed of vegetation of
desert area like acacias and short bushes. The trees of plateau are used for house
construction and for making of ladder and fire woods especially in rural areas of the study
area. The farmers use the highland tree plants for the different agriculture tools and other
purposes. The desert plant of acacia is very good agriculture tool in farming.

The population density of the area is widely dispersed most dominant population of the
area can be considered as the main ethnic groups of Amhara who speak Amharic as their
mother tongue language. The distribution of the population is well planned for house
construction and farmland usability. The people of study area also adopted the cattle raring
in addition to the different production of agricultural products of fruits and food cereals.
The dominant agricultural products adopted and produced by the people are Teff, Wheat,
and Maize etc. Tomato, Potato, Cabbages, onions and others fruits are also cultivated. The
religion followed by the population is mainly the Orthodox Christianity and Muslim with
6
few protestant followers. Population growth of the northern plateau, is especially the
highland area fast and is rapidly changing the land use and land cover from forest to
agriculture. The sociability, well coming of gusts and respectful attitude is the common life
style of highland people.
The population of the area is widely dispersed throughout the study area and surrounding
towns of Mekane Selam. The small houses of the people are mostly built at the hill of the
basin and highlands of the area while reserving the low lands and flat areas for the
agricultural and small seasonal irrigation purpose. Settlements of the area is sparse in the
desert environment and densely populated on the highlands. Following the topography
which is suitable for land use and possibility of town in feature the population settlement
is dense enough.
1.2 Statement of the problem

The Blue Nile basin is one of the known sedimentary basins in Ethiopia. It is well stratified
and exposed basin. The resource potential of industrials and energy minerals with
geological environmental conditions makes the basin to be attractive and drew the
attentions of many researchers in the past. Large potentials of iron ore related with
magmatic and sedimentary origin of Bikilal (magmatic), Bale, Sekota, Kefa, Harer and
different parts of Tigray (sedimentary) area are resources of iron (Solomon Tadesse, 2009
and Ethio- korian, 1986). A detailed geological investigation including drilling,
geochemical, geophysical and other physical studies were conducted on Bikilal iron ore
deposit (Ethio-Korian, 1986). Geological, geophysical, geochemical investigations were
done by researcher from Geological Survey of Ethiopia and other companies on other iron
potentials of the country which are found in southern and northern parts of Ethiopia
(Solomon Tadeses, 2009). However, the iron potentials of Mekane Selam area is not known
and not well studied so far. This makes loose comparison the iron occurrence of the area
with other resources of the country. There is a clear indication of the occurrences of metallic
mineral resource potential of Mekane Selam and surrounding area especially for iron
mineralization. The genesis, geochemistry, geologic environment and others are not
studied. The metallic mineral resource potential of the northern Ethiopia especially Mekane
Selame iron occurrence is unrecognized resource and not considered as iron potential area.
There is limited geological, geochemical and other resource investigation by Geological
Survey of Ethiopia. However, the work conducted in the area is not enough to assess the
mode of formation and geologic setting of the area. Generally the current research project
is mainly focused on the iron potential of the Blue Nile basin more specifically Mekane
7
Selam. Preliminary report by GSE (2018) indicated iron occurrences in Mekane Selam and
surrounding. But, this work doesn’t include the genesis and mode of iron occurrence.
1.3 Research Objective
1.3.1 General Objective

The main objective of this research work is to describe the geologic setting and determine
the possible genesis of Mekane Selam Tewa area iron occurrence.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

The specific objectives of the current research includes:

 Identify and describe the lithologic units or host rocks.
 Produce lithological map of the area and mineralized zone at scale of 1: 25,000.
 Characterize the petrography of ores and host rocks.
 Explain the geologic history and genesis of the mineralized area.
 Preliminary investigation to determine the quantity of the iron occurrence.

1.4 Methodology

In order to accomplish the above objectives of this research, different types of technical
works were conducted. It includes the following outdoor observation and indoor analytical
investigation activities. Geological, mineralogical and geochemical laboratory and
petrographic analysis are the principal research methods applied for the current work. The
chemical, mineralogical and petrographic data were analyzed, synthesized, presented and
finally interpreted.
1.4.1 Field work and Geological Mapping

The research work is done mainly by practical field work and laboratory examinations. It
is the principal methodology applied for this work to do practically through actual
observation to the ground and performing sample testing. Primary data like lithological
units, representative samples of the iron and rocks were has been collected for further
laboratory analysis under this activity. Geological field work is important to know the
distribution of ore body and lithology of the area. The field work activity has been divided
in to three main phases of work. Pre field activities, field work activities and post field
activities until the compilation of the research work.
1.4.1.1 Pre field work

8
Literature reviews and collecting any secondary data relevant for the current study from
previous works. Surveying of secondary data insights about the general frame work of the
regional geology, geologic history, tectonic setting and structural condition with
deformational history of the study area were collected and analyzed. Satellite image
interpretation, remote sensing and google Earth software analysis and interpretation were
the most important tools for understanding the geology and structural conditions of the area.

The accessibility, lateral extent, physiographic and weather conditions of the area and
population settlement and behavior as well as means of communications were gathered
from people who know the area. Determination and decision on the total project area in
square km from DEM map study, traverse line orientation and line spacing between the
traverse as well as number of samples to be collected were conducted. Synthesis, Analysis
and interpretation previous works conducted on the area have been done during the pre-
field phase of the research.

1.4.1.2 Field work

Field observations on mineralized zone, documenting of geologic structures and lithologic

variations were conducted. The best and suitable traversing lines were selected and used to
describe the lithologic units as well as iron ore of study area. Field measurements of the
exposed ore body and lithology with descriptions were conducted. The ore body horizontal
continuity and vertical variation were investigated from field observation. Geologic
mapping at a scale of 1:25,000 is completed. The different geological units and ore
mineralization has been mapped and described prior to the use of arc map (GIS) software
to digitize the field map. Where the lithological boundaries, ore body variations and
positions of samples were documented using geographic position system (GPS). Collecting
representative samples of iron ore and associated rocks were used as a primary data for the
study.
1.4.1.3 Post field work

Preparation of ore and rock samples for geochemical analysis and petrographic description
are the primary activities in this phase of the research. Collecting, interpreting and
presenting the laboratory geochemical results followed the sample preparation phase.
Polished section of iron ore were prepared for microscopic study and characterization of
ore samples. Under this study the mineralogical content, textural pattern, grain size
9
distributions, microstructures of the ore minerals were described and characterized with
respect to other ore minerals. Thin section description of rock samples with their
interpretation and presentation were also the tasks of this research work under post field
phase. Final report writing from analysis and interpretation of the chemical, mineralogical
and petrographic results followed the laboratory works.

1.4.2 Laboratory test and chemical analysis

1.4.2.1 Mineralogy (XRD)

Mineralogical (quantitatively and qualitatively) and geochemical analysis are the most vital
laboratory tests which have been done for the current research work. Powder X-ray
diffraction belongs among standard methods of solid matters analysis. It provides
information about phase composition of sample (qualitative and quantitative phase
analysis), and crystal structure of matters (crystal structural analysis). Application is also
used at textural research (texture analysis).
Portable X-ray Fluorescence (PXRF) is a technique for chemical compositional
measurement in which X-rays of a known energy are directed towards a target or sample,
causing the atoms within the material to emit "fluorescent" X-rays at energies characteristic
of its elemental composition.
Five iron ore samples were sent to laboratory for mineralogical and other analysis using X-
ray diffraction (XRD). The economically valuable and non-valuable mineralogical contents
of the ore is identified after mineralogical differentiation. The mineral identification and
characterization of the iron ore is done by using X-ray diffraction method. The ore minerals
are ground in to fine powdered for mineral analysis. The iron ore samples collected from
Mekane Selam area for mineralogical identification and analysis were labeled considering
the name of the area and corresponding block numbers. Then prepared at Geological Survey
of Ethiopia (GSE) for mineralogical laboratory work. Five (5) varieties of iron ore samples
(MS-B1, MS-DB3, MS-B5, MS-B10 and MS-LW) were prepared in powdered form at
mineralogical laboratory center of Geological Survey of Ethiopia. The powdered ore
samples were sent to the laboratory of the Geological Survey of Czech Republic.
Qualitative mineralogical content, chemistry and interpretation were done in the XRD
laboratory analysis found in the same laboratory. The powdered samples preparation was
done in the Geological Survey of Ethiopia using jaw crasher and grinding mill. The rock
crashers minimizes the large size rock samples to 10 – 5 mm gravel size and the jaw crasher
crashes the 10-5 mm sized sample in to 5-1mm size. The crashed samples by jaw crasher
10
to 5-1mm was again powdered by grinding mill to 0.063 mm very fine powder of iron.
Finally the powdered iron ore samples were sent to the Geological Survey of Czech
Republic (GSCR) laboratory center for mineralogical identification and analysis.

1.4.2.2 Geochemistry (ICP-MS and ICP-AES)

Geochemical analysis were done using chemical element detection instruments. The
detection limited and accuracy of ICP-MS and ICP-AES is important first criterion.
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP –MS) and inductively coupled plasma
atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP–AES) were applied to detect the chemical elements
and elemental composition of the rocks of the study area. The major and trace element
concentration of the collected representative ore and host rock samples were analyzed by
ICP-AES and ICP-MS respectively. Those analysis of major and trace element
geochemistry are useful to study the rock classifications, to determine the degree and
intensity of weathering and to understand the genesis of ore deposit. Major elements are
mainly useful for rock classification and quality of iron determination. Whereas the trace
and Rare Earth Element (REE) analysis is used to determine the genesis of the deposit.
Geochemical analysis of mineralized and non- mineralized rock of study area were
conducted for trace and major element content study. Using ICP-MS (inductively coupled
plasma mass spectroscopy) and (ICP-AES) Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy) the trace and major element geochemistry of iron host rock and ore will be
analyzed. This method is important to know the chemical composition and classification of
rocks and to understand the origin of iron mineralization. For the current research work a
total of sixteen (16) representative rock and iron ore samples were sent to the chemical
laboratory analysis in Belgium. Those selected samples for geochemical analysis were
prepared at Addis Ababa University, School of Earth Science. The samples were milled
using ceramic and tungsten carbide miller. The Geochemical analyses were done in
Belgium University of Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Department of Geosciences,
Environment et Societe (DGES) chemical laboratory of G- Time. Six sandstones labeled
as (MSd1, MSd2, MSd3, MSd4, MSd8 and MSd11), seven (7) iron ore (MSB3, MSB4,
MSB6, MSB7, MSB11, MSB12 and MSB15) and three (MSh1, MSh2 and MSh3 mud -
shale samples were analyzed for major and trace element analysis in Belgium.

11
 1.4.3. Petrographic study

The rock samples that were collected from the study area were prepared in thin slab section
based on their lithological variability. This is important for the petrographic mineral
identification, modal composition and description, structural, textural and other relevant
data collection. Also used to understand the rock variability and mineralogical change as
well as analysis with interpretation purpose of current study from petrographic analysis.
The petrographic description and analysis were applied for the iron host rocks and the ore
itself. Host rocks of the ore is studied and analyzed using thin section of rocks where the
iron ore is done by polished section of the roe. Light transparent petrography and reflected
microscope were the selected instruments for this rock and ore study respectively.

1.4.3.1 Thin section

The study of thin section is very important task for rocks to understand the history of the
sediment were pass through. The description and analysis was done with the help of
polarizing microscope development. Through this instrument the rock fabrics, mineral
composition, grain size, grain shape, roundness and origin of the rock was interpreted from
results. The sandstone, mudstone or shale, limestone and basalt samples were gathered from
the area during field season. Those are ready for thin section preparation, descriptions and
possible interpretation. A total of 11 rock samples were collected from the study area
depending on the rock variability and degree of weathering. Five sandstone (MSd3, MSd5,
MSd6, MSd8, and MSd10), two mud or shale (MSh1and MSh2), two limestone (MSL4
and MSL6) and two basalt (MSa1 and MSa5) representative samples were collected and
prepared for thin section study. From field observation the most favorable rock that host
the iron ore is sandstone. The thin section samples were analyzed to determine their, modal
composition, texture, cementing materials and geological setting of the area. The thin
section study also important for the appropriate rock naming and determine the possible
origin of the sediment source. Those collected rock types are prepared for thin section rock
samples at Geological Survey of Ethiopia central laboratory. However, descriptions of thin
sections were done at Addis Ababa University (AAU) petrographic laboratory section
School of Earth Science.

1.4.3.2 Polished section

12
Iron ore samples were studied from the laboratory polished section of ore samples. A total
of six (6) iron ore (MSB2, MSB8, MSB9, MSB13, MSB14 and MSB16) samples were
collected for polish section analysis. Those samples collected from the field based on their
distribution, weathered conditions, ore variability and types of host rock. Polished section
of the ores were prepared in the Ethiopian Geological Survey laboratory. The collected
representative samples were prepared for polish section texture, color, and reflectance
characterization, mineralogical assemblage discrimination and mineral paragenesis
purpose. Light reflected ore microscopy were the most suitable and selected instrument for
this analysis. All descriptions and characterization study was done at ore microscopy
laboratory section in Addis Ababa University School of Earth Science. The study of ore
samples from prepared polished section is helpful to identify constituent ore minerals and
the associated gangues. Thus may give clue for the iron ore depositional mechanism and
environmental conditions. In addition to this critical information were obtained for the
practical iron ore processing and mining activity from their associated gangues and hosts.
Important to choice the best processing methods that environmentally friend to enhance the
use of resources.

1.5 Significance of the research

The iron resource potential of the research area is poorly explored and delineated as it
compared with North and South part of the country. This thesis work is important to
consider Mekane Selam and surrounding area is one of the iron mineral resource area and
for indication of the iron ore potentiality of northwestern of Blue Nile basin. And it may be
a reference or used as a secondary source materials for any researchers to searching and
detail investigation or study of other metallic and noon metallic mineral resources to the
feature exploration. This study provides an opportunity to understand the origin of
sandstone hosted iron ore mineralization. To comprehended the genetic model for the iron
ore occurrence in the study area that can be utilized to understand the genetic process of
iron ore of similar deposits.

1.6 Research overview

Generally the research project of current study is organized and structured in to different
main chapters and significant sub chapters. The first chapter can give general frame work
and information about the background, location and accessibility, physiographic, climate
conditions of the area. Main and specific objectives, applied methodology and problem of

13
the research statement and importance of the research are included within this part of the
work. Secondary data collections (literature reviews), information on iron ore formations,
explorations, mining, processing and productions of the iron resource and overview of the
iron resource of Ethiopia are mentioned in chapter two of this work. The regional geology
and tectonics of the general sedimentary basins as well as volcanic trap of Ethiopia were
highlighted in the third chapter. The geological units characterize the research work area
with petrographic results were discussed and illustrated under chapter four. Within the fifth
chapter the iron occurrence of Mekane Selam and surrounding, with XRD and ore
petrography mineralogical constituent, nature of the iron mineralization, geological history
and host rock of the area were covered and described. Geochemistry of iron, host rock,
country rocks and laboratory results are mentioned and discussed in chapter six of this
thesis. The discussion part, geologic setting of the area, origin (genesis) of iron is and the
final conclusions with possible recommendation were discussed and included within
chapter seven and eight of the current research work respectively.

CHAPTER TWO

2 Literature review

Iron is the fourth abundant element of Earth’s crust element with a total 95% metal grade
(Goldischemidsh, 1888-1947 and Solomon Tadesse, 2009). The 5% of our earth’s crust is
occupied by ferrous group elements (Gross, 1996). Its geochemical property makes iron to
occur in oxides and sulfide ore minerals with rear native formation. It is the most common
metal that oxidized in surface environment to convert from ferrous (Fe2+) to ferric (Fe3+)
valance state (Robb, 2005). Iron is economically important element that occupies 15% of
sedimentary rock (Bekker et al., 2010; James, 1966). Iron is characterized by strong
behavior for oxygen affinity and its oxide comprises varying quantities of silicon, sulfur,
manganese and phosphors elements (Spoerl, 2016). Iron is the dominant constituent of
majority of rock types chemically known by its Fe2+ (furious) and Fe3+ (ferric) states.
Therefore, its ore mineral formation is a factor of oxidation to reducing state. The oxidation
condition of the environment favors precipitation of different iron oxides (Lewis, 1976;
Bekker et al., 2010). It is oxidized to ferric iron and reduced to ferrous in the free oxygen
(oxygenated) and deficient oxygen (anoxic) environment respectively (Taylor and
Macquaker, 2011). Iron is deposited in both sea floors as primary precipitation and
solutions of non - associating with volcanic or hot brines circulations (Moscow and Ussr,
1973). Genetically banded iron formation is chemically positive enrichment by Eu and
14
negatively depleted in Ce as well as LREE relative to HREE indicates hydrothermal
mineralization process (Eugene et al 2014). The geologic environment of iron deposition
is viewed as a wide range of crystallization of heavy mineral settling, metamorphic
alterations, sedimentary precipitation and secondary lateritic weathering (AISI, 1999;
Solomon Tadess, 2009). Iron is the world leading metal of the current industry. Its supply
is significant to substitute the large import and export expenditures of any country (Jonsson
et al., 2013). Hematite content of iron ore hosted in Precambrian to sedimentary formation
is the most world’s economical source of iron (Beukes et al., 2003; Solomon and Worash,
2015). The requirement for this element is the back bone for the developments of today’s
industry (Sahoo et al., 2018). The availability, strength in different applications and its
economic cost makes iron useble of all metals (Solomon Tadesse. 2009). According to
American iron and steel institute company (AISIC, 1999) the mineralogical contents of iron
ore is grouped as oxides, carbonates, sulfides, and silicate minerals. Hematite, magnetite
goethite, taconite and others are the most known iron ore minerals (Divkota and Paudel,
2012; Asuke et al., 2019).
2.1 Pervious work

The study area of this research work is not studied previously from the economic point of
view except few studies on oil and gas potentials of neighboring localities. However,
previous studies and delineation of iron ore mineralization potential in Ethiopia is taken as
a guide for the investigation of Mekane Selam area iron occurrence. The iron ore
mineralization potential in the southern and northern parts of Ethiopia is used as a reference
(Solomon Tadesse, 2009).
The northwestern plateau where the present study area is found previously studied with
respect to different geological and resource aspects (Getaneh Assefa, 1991 and Welela
Ahemed, 2002; 2009) conducted a detailed descriptions for the sandstone unit as Debre
Libanos Sandstone (DLS) and Mugher mudstone. This unit of the area is the main host rock
for iron ore mineralization observed today. Another resource of the region is oil seep near
Wereillu area (Kazmin, 1975, Serawit Amene and Tamrat Mojo, 1999; Welela Ahemed,
2002; 2009). Adigrat sandstone of Blue Nile Basin and Debre Libaose sandstones are the
main targeted formations for oil and gas exploration (Welela Ahemed, 2002).
Muger mudstone and DLS were deposited under Semi–arid to humid to tropical climate in
association with rapid fluctuation discharge (Welela, 2002). Continentally originated
Mesozoic sediments of northern Ethiopia are less favorable formation for oil and gas and
metallic mineral resource exploration but are suitable for non- metallic mineral resources
15
occurrence (Kazmin, 1975 and Kiffer et al., 2004). According to Danile Meshesha and
Shino (2007, as cited in GSE, 2015) the plateaus flood basalt is distinctly separated and
also dated. The Ethiopian plateau including the northwestern one is the result of several
distinct volcanic centers and magmas erupted at different times (Kieffer et al., 2003).
Northern Ethiopian plateaus petrographic and geochemical integration with emplacement
age study and volcanic section near Blue Nile overlay on Mesozoic sediment was
conducted by Beccualuva et al. (2009).
2.1.1 Previous study on iron occurrence of Ethiopia

Iron mineralization history and application concept in Ethiopia is begins from the early
uncivilized mankind’s. The resource of iron in Ethiopia is observed from the small
indication and occurrence to the level of ore deposit. The mineralization of this resource is
difficult to say there is enough ore deposit in the country. Some of the iron ores were known
in different parts of Ethiopia from occurrence to deposit level. Concerning iron ore potential
most parts of Ethiopia were reconnaissancely prospected and explored by Ethio – Korean
(1988), Solomon Tadesse (2009) and Geological Survey of Ethiopia (2017 - 2019). In
different parts of the country. However, the economic and more detail works were restricted
in a few areas. The iron ore mineralization of Ethiopia is formed due to intense weathering
of volcanic rocks and attract the economic interest (Kazmin, 1975). Generally in Ethiopia
two main iron ore mineralization areas like Bikilal and Melka Arba are known. A detailed
geophysical, geochemical and geological prospection were done by Ethio- Korean project
on Bikilal and Melka Arba iron ore (Masresha Gebreselase, 2000 and GSE, 2002). An
exploration program for uneconomical iron ore deposit would have been conducted in
Ethiopia since from Italian occupation (Hmrla, 1966). Geological and geophysical
prospecting work indicates a total of 800,000 tons of iron ore reserve. The estimation of
this amount contains 65% average grade of Fe in Wollega (Gulliso-Yubdo-Koree and Billa
areas), (Rudis, 1964). Iron exploration project conducted in Ethiopia bales to estimate 58
million ton reserve at Bikilal and genetically magmatic origin of iron. Out of this 23.3% is
magnetic and 41% total Fe were documented from the geological works of drilling and
trenching (Ethio-Korean 1988). The Bikilal iron ore deposit of Ethiopia was the well-
known in Wollega and recently discovered deposit of the country have the same genesis to
world iron (Solomon Tadesse, 2009). The iron ore resource of Ethiopia is explored using
geophysical and geological as a prospection works in Melka Arba area (Masresh G/ Selasse,
2002 and Solomon Tadesse, 2009). This iron ore is commonly hosted in gabbroic massive
rock and disseminated within Syn – Tectonic to magmatic model of emplacement
16
(Masresha G/ Selasse, 2002). Hematite mineralogical content found in the Blue Nile
sedimentary Basin rocks as cementation is an indication of secondary iron resource in the
country (Getaneh Assefa, 1991 and Welela Ahmed, 2002). It is a clear cementing raw
material for the lower formation of (Adigrat sandstone deposit). Iron potentials of Ethiopia
is discovered in its deposit and occurrence level in northern, western and south western of
the country (Solomon Tadesse, 2009). Fracture filling, late magmatic hydrothermal type of
iron ore body that is non promising in economic aspect is reported around Kunni, Deder
and Galleti area in Harerge (EIGS, 1990). Banded ironstone type small extent in Tsole,
Faduni Boya, Belgagu areas has been investigated in iron concurrence exploration project
(GSE, 1986). Laterite iron was identified within Tertiay volcanic rocks of basalt, rhyolite,
trachyte and tuffs around Dim, Arbaminch and Gamo Gofa area (GSE, 1975). This iron ore
mineralization of the area is hosted within Mesozoic sediment and Cenozoic to Tertiary
volcanic. In addition there are many areas were known by iron occurrences in Ethiopia like
Gordma, Chago, Dimma, Mai Gudo, Melka Sedi, Adua and Entcho (Solomon Tadesse,
2009). Yubdo, Nejo, Kata, Sirba, Korkandi, Kiltukara and Wobera Kiltu are some areas of
iron occurrence in Ethiopia identified by (GSE, 2000). Iron ore mineralization of Ethiopia
prospected and discovered in different areas are mineralogically dominated by magnetite,
hematite and limonite (Solomon Tadesse, 2009). Iron ore resource potentials of the country
are distributed at different regions and localities few of them are shown in (Fig.5).

Figure 5. Distribution of iron occurrence in Ethiopia.

17
 2.2 Process of iron ore formation

The wide range of industrial applications throughout the world of iron take attentions of
users to know its process of formation and quantity. However, the beneficiation, economic
technology and quality of the ore minerals are the most critical factors of iron application.
The formation of iron ore takes place in wide range of geologic time within volcanic to
sedimentary geologic environment and have different distribution. Now adays different
geologic settings and processes are suitable areas for iron formation as well as deposition.
Concerning the iron ore distributions, it is differently formed and also differently
distributed in various regions with variable concentrations. The magmatic to exhalative and
sedimentary precipitation is the common modes of iron formation and deposition. Magma
related hydrothermal solutions alters sedimentary carbonates mineralogy to skarn type iron
(Solomon Tadesse, 2009). Among them the sedimentary and magmatic iron ore
mineralization is some of the occurrences in Ethiopia. Magmatic iron is concentrated due
to heavy iron mineral crystallization settling processes from liquid magma. The deposition
and concentration of iron ore is mainly due to iron rich chemical precipitation in oceans
(banded iron is the largest sedimentary iron concentration), surface rock weathering
(residual laterite iron) and direct crystallizations of Fe from magma (Solomon and Worash,
2015) gives economic iron deposit. Geochemical inheritance of source magma, hot fluids
and parent rock enriched in iron is important for magmatic, hydrothermal exhalative and
sedimentary iron formation respectively (Roob, 2013). The early precipitated banded iron
rich sediment is laterally modified and enhance its Fe content by hydrothermal process
(Bhattacharya and Ghosh, 2012).
2.3 Exploration

Exploration of a mineral deposit is an activity performed to assessing the resource potential

of particular mineral. Rapid increase of iron demand in the home land country and through
abroad facilitate the exploration as well as beneficiation of iron ores. The earth’s iron ore
deposit was exploited and consumed by early humans. In order to create constant demand
and consumption of iron resource very sophisticated exploration task is needed. Searching
the previously existing iron ore resources for their mining operation may be the simplest
activity. However, in iron exploration program discovering new ore deposit, determining
the areal extent and Fe grade is the difficult task. Iron Exploration consists of discovering
the ore, quantify the resource through applying geological mapping with logging,
geophysical surveying, geochemical analysis and magnetic techniques are the most

18
employed for the exploration activity. The iron ore reserve can be estimated with the help
of gravity, magnetic and self-potential different geophysical exploration techniques
(Christiansen et al., 2018). To conduct iron ore deposit exploration ground magnetic and
electrical surveying techniques are used from the susceptibility and resistivity data
interpretation respectively (Bayowa et al., 2016).
2.4 Processing

Beneficiation and the end product of the iron ore in relation to their gangue impurities were
the most critical factors of iron processing and extraction. The commerciality iron ore is
influenced by the mineralogical content and particular oxidation state of iron oxides
(Kanorr and Bornefeld, 2012). Iron ore with high Fe, low Aluminum and phosphorous
content requires simple technology of beneficiation. However, ores characterized by high
aluminum and phosphorous and lateritic–goethitic ore with low Fe needs specific technique
(Upadhyay et al., 2010). The XRD and microscopic mineralogical quantification of the
constituent phases of iron ore is optimizes the metallurgical processing and mining
operations (Villiers and Lu, 2015). Blast furnace, routes (pig iron) and direct reductions are
the most common processes of iron production methods (Asuke et al., 2019; Muanguiz et
al., 2012). Iron ore passes through different processing paths since its discovery until the
production of steel. In blast furnaces iron is processed through mining, crushing, separating,
concentrating, mixing, pelletizing and shipping. Metallic iron is economically extracted
from the iron ore rich in iron oxides. To extract the metal grade of iron from hematite,
magnetite, goethite and other sulfides mineral processing is needed. The iron ore processing
and extraction produces iron metal and steel. Iron ore mineralization is occur with different
gangue minerals or impurities. The mineralogical content, type of gangue minerals
associated within the iron ore controls the choice of technological beneficiation treatment.
The mineralogical characterization of an ore deposit from ore petrography and XRD study
are of major importance for mineral processing. This mineralogical study plays a vital role
in selections of the appropriate processing method. In the processing of iron ore for better
beneficiation there must be an increase in the content of Fe and decreasing the proportions
of impurity or gangue. This very critical condition is met through washing, jagging, gravity
separation, magnetic separation and using advanced technology of grinding, crashing,
roasting and screening are also seriously applied for the better treatment and beneficiation
of iron from its impurities. The iron ore processing and steel production method with major
operations is illustrated in following diagram.

19
 Cock production Sinter production Iron production Iron preparation

Finished product Semi-finished product preparation Steel production

preparation

Heat and electricity Handling Transport raw waste and materials

supply

Figure 6. Basic iron ore interrelated operational stapes according to (Upadhyay et al., 2009
and Nomura et al., 2015).

IRON ORE

High grade lump fines Low grade

Ore dressing Tailing

Flue dust Sintering and palatalization

Coke and fluxes

Smelting in blast furnace Slag to waste

Scrap

Hot Metal (pig iron)

Refining in open hearth furnace Refining in Bessemer converter or LD

Slag to waste Bessemer steel or

Open hearth steel
LD

Figure 7. Flow sheet for iron and steel extraction process according to (Kumar,
2003 and Spoerl, 2016).
20
 2.5 Mining

The iron ore is mined from all igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock types that hosts
enough economical concentrations of Fe. However the mining method selected for the iron
ore is dependent combinations of various factors. Ore deposit type, extensions, technology
applied, geologic formation of surrounding rocks, ore shape and environmental conditions
are some of them. Mining of iron ore passes through exploration, mine development,
underground and open pit extraction, ore beneficiation, storage with transportation and
mine closure and reclamation. The mining activity of iron ore may be conducted by both
surficial and underground mining method based on the ore deposit. The overburden
materials of the iron ore dictates the mining activity to be applied. Bog iron ore can be
mined by simple digging where, others need open cast pit and deep underground works.
The most common iron ore mining activities have been conducted by large open pit
excavation and removal of surface overburden. Surface mining is applied when the ore is
close to the surface. In general most iron ore were mined by surface mining method
(commonly open pit and open cast). But, some of the large iron deposits around the world
are mined through underground mining activity. Small ore bodies are mined by manual
mining techniques rather mechanized. Floated type of ore are easily dug, with picks, craw
bars and spades manually. In order to mine iron from its sub surface deposit mechanized
mining were chosen and well assisted by drilling as well as blasting. However, the
proximity of ore body to surface determines which method is employed. Magmatic to
hydrothermally related iron ore deposits are commonly extracted by underground mining
method. Finally the open pit and underground mining of iron ore must consider
environmental issues. The overburden, waste rocks and mine water consists of suspended
dissolved metals with fluids dumped properly. Rehabilitation of the normal environment is
the final considering issue of mining activity before mine closure.

CHAPTER THREE

3 Regional geology and tectonic setting

3.1 Introduction

A number of geo scientific researches were conducted in East African Rift system, and
western and southern plateaus of Ethiopia. The northwestern Ethiopian plateau is part of
the African rift and basin formation mainly consisting of flood basalt and older sediment
sequences. Geologically the northern basins are described by different volcanic
21
sedimentary and underlying basement rocks. However the northern plateau and associated
basins are predominantly known by Tertiary to Quaternary volcanic complexes and
different sedimentary successions. The flood basalt volcanic plateau was an emplacement
of Afar mantle plume that extends to the rift margin. Basins and volcanic trap of the
northern plateau episodically affected by the uplifting and seasonal erosion with extended
rift escarpment.
Tectonic setting of Blue Nile and Upper River basins are considered as the Horn of African
Rift (HAR) sedimentary basins that are controlled by rifting and continental breakup. The
tectonic forces of Earth’s crust is important controls to generate sedimentary basins in the
area. The basin formation and developments with its associated sediment filling of most
basins are assisted by extensional rifting, uplifting–subsidence and denudations or erosional
process.

3.2 Regional geology

Precambrian basements, late Paleozoic to early Tertiary sediments and Cenozoic volcanic
with associated sediments are the main lithological units of Ethiopia. (Kazmin, 1975;
Mengesha Tefera et al., 1996). Sedimentary and volcanic varieties are the components of
the basement rocks (Serawit Amene, 1999). The physiographic features of Ethiopia is
characterized by Northwestern and Southeastern extensive plateaus, Main Ethiopian Rift
Valley (MER) and Afar Depression (AD) (Getaneh Assefa, 1991 and Mengesh Tefera et
al., 1996). From those features the Blue Nile Basin is one of the main sedimentary basins
of the country that is found in Northwestern plateau. This basin is underlain by
Neoproterozoic crystalline rocks and overlain by Oligocene to Quaternary volcanic (Gani
et al., 2008). It is occupied by siliclastic continental sediments which are grouped in to
Mugher Mudstone and Debre Libanose Sandstone (DLS) (Getaneh Assefa, 1991). The
evolutions of the basin is divided in to three dominant phases: Pre-sedimentation,
sedimentation and post sedimentation phases. The pre sedimentation phase is characterized
by pre rifting and crystalline basement rock denudation and peneplanation (Getaneh
Assefa, 1991). Sedimentation phase is described by: Marine transgression for sandy
mudstone, lower and upper limestone, gypsum unit sedimentation. Marine regression that
is responsible to deposit alluvial/fluvial upper sandstone (DLS). Post sedimentation phase
occurred during Oligocene period and is documented by thick volcanic eruptions and
quaternary top volcanism are emplaced which are related with Mantle Plume of Afar
volcanic eruptions (Getaneh Asesfa, 1991 and Gani et al., 2008). In additions, the
22
sedimentary evolution of the Blue Nile Gorge is outlined by (Russo et al., 1994 cited in
Gani et al., 2008). According to Aubry, (1886), Stefanini, (1933), Merla et al.(1973 and
1979 cited in Getaneh Asefa, 1991) the Northwestern, Shoa and Wollo sandstone with
upper gypsum sediments are characterized and conformably overlay to the lagajima
limestone. Typically different sedimentary formation show various depositional
mechanism at different basins. That is Karroo sediments around Ogaden basin, Adigrat
Sandstone in Abay basin Denakil Alpe and Rift Valley (Senbeto Chwaka, 1981 cited in
Serawit Amene, 1999) and Abbate et al., 2014). The continental clastic Paleozoic to
Mesozoic sediments are cropping out in Abay River Gorge including Tigray, Harer and
other areas of the Ethiopia (Kazmin, 1972, 1975 and Getaneh Asefa, 1991). Mesozoic
sedimentary sequence of Abay Basin is continuously exposed within upper Abay and Jema
River valley and unconformbly overlaid by the tertiary volcanic. (Tamtat Mojo and Serawit
Amene, 1995). In this sub basin the sediments are characterized by limited thickness of
about 100 and 120m thick sections of clastic sediments near Blue Nile Gorge and Jema
River respectively (Abbate et al., 2014). The sediments deposited within this basin are due
to the presence of NE-SW oriented fault system in central to northeastern part of Abay
(Gani et al., 2008). This structural system is the probable reason for the Blue Nile Basin is
divided in to Mugher Mudstone of western part and DLS of northeastern to central part of
two sub basins (Welela Ahmed, 2009). Stratigraphic section of Blue Nile Basin from the
base to top is described as Precambrian basement, Karroo sediments, middle and upper
carbonate and sulphate Hamaneli formations, Muger mudstone, DLS and volcanic trap of
the plateau (Welela Ahemed, 2002). The Lower sandstone, shale and gypsum, limestone,
shaly sandstone, upper sandstone and massive flood lavas are the basin log section made
by Getaneh Assefa (1991). The Limestone, gypsum and shale units are outlined by Krenkle,
(1926). According to GSE (2015) Lower sandstone, gypsum unit, fossilized limestone,
upper sandstone and basaltic lava flows are regional stratigraphic units of the Blue Nile
Basin. The structural and stratigraphic studies used for reconstruction about the basin
geological history are studied by Gani et al. (2007 cited in Gani et al., 2008). The DLS crop
out regionally at different parts of the country around Lemi area, Mugher and Jema Rivers
(Getaneh Assefa, 1991). Similarly it is also, found in Mekeke and Ogaden basins (Byth,
1972 / 73; Worku T., 1988; Hunegnaw A., 1998 as cited in Welela, 2009). The DLS unit is
regionally correlated with Nubian Sandstone, Sudan, Yemen, Kenya and Saudi Arabian
Sandstone (Getaneh Assefa, 1991). This unit is also classified as the upper sandstone
(Mohr, 1962; Kazmin, 1975 and Merla et al., 1973 as cited in Welela Ahmed, 2009).
23
According to Shumbro (1968, cited in Welela Ahmed, 2009). The (DLS) unit is described
as the Ambaradom formation. Also, it is described and classified as Debre Libanose
Sandstone and the Mugher Mudstone by Getaneh Assefa, (1991). The weathered and fertile
volcanic trap of northwestern plateau is unconformabley overlain on the DLS lithologic
unit (Welela Ahmed, 2002). Upper Sandstone of Blue Nile Basin is characterized by
upward fining in texture with lenses of conglomerate resulted from meandering river
sedimentation (Welela Ahmed, 2009). Horizontally bedded, massive beds, laminated shale,
mud and siltstones and fine to medium grained sandstones are the common features of
(DLS) (Welela Ahmed, 2002; 2009). The sandstone, shale, siltstone and conglomerate
varieties of late Paleozoic to Mesozoic age are the main filling rocks of peripheral parts of
Ethiopian sedimentary basins (Mengesha Tefera et al., 1996). Sandstone, shale and silty
clastic sediments of Abay basin is unconformabely overlay the lower or (Adigrat)
sandstone (Jepson and Athearn, 1961 as cited in Meshesha et al., 1996). The Adigrat
sandstone formation is variably overalyed unconformabely on the Precambrian basements.
This unite is slight disconformabely underlain by late Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks of Northern Ethiopia (Mengesha Tefera et al., 1996; Kazmin, 1975). The western,
southeastern including northwestern Ethiopian highland plateaus cover large area. Those
volcanic products consists of both the flood basalts with approximately same chemical and
mineralogical composition and parts of sedimentary successions (Kieffer et al., 2004 and
Mengesha Tefera, 1996). Alkaline and thiolitic basalts of south and west margin of Afar
depression in Northern Ethiopia have some successive interbedding with cretaceous
regressive sandstone (Gouin and Mohr, 1964 cited in Mengesh Tefera et al., 1996). The
Eastern to Western part of Africa and Arabia trepan basalt was extensively exposed during
the Oligocene in relation with terrestrial sediment deposition (Abbate et. al., 2014). The
distributions of flood basalt in the North South, West and East was genetically
reconstructed as migrated from the Afar Depression center of volcanism (Kazmin, 1979).
Flood basalts of the plateau is tectonically culminated due to the emplacement of alkaline
shield volcanoes (Mengesh Tefera, et al., 1996). Where the volcanic emplacement of ash
and coarse pyroclastic fragment products are form the trap segments composed of basalts
to siliceous verities (Kazmin, 1975). This flood basalt has 600000km2 containing the
youngest Quaternary sediments of conglomerate, sand and clays exposed in in Afar and
northern margin of the Rift (Kazmin, 1975; Kieffer et al., 2004). The mineralogical
composition of flood basalts consists of aphyric to phyric and phynocryts of plagioclase
and clinopyroxen without or few olivine (Kieffer et al., 2004).The outcomes of
24
geochemical trace element distribution and isotopic constituent of the northern shield and
flood basalt is due to complex evolution through progressive changes (Kieffer et al., 2004).
The volcanic intertrapean of northern margin is characterized by common features of lignite
seam and content of fossilized organism (Rodriguze, 1919 and Gtaneh Assefa and Saxena,
1984 cited in Abbate et al., 2014). According to GSE (2015) the tertiary rock units are
dominated by basaltic lava flows and pyroclastic tuff underlain by Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks. Those are separated into different units of alkaline and tholitics (Daniel Meshesha
and Shino, 2007). The northwestern plateau is consist conglomerated to mudy sandstone,
limestone and volcanic lava flows as a regional geologic units (GSE, 2015). The flood
basalt of plateau is deeply weathered of alkaline with transitional basalt and intercalations
of pyroclastic materials (Mengesha Tefera et al., 1996). According to Getaneh Assefa
(1991) lithological stratigraphy of the northwestern part of the country were has been
established.

25
 Basalt trachyte, rhyolite with beds of tuff
palaeosols and lacustrine sediments.

Vertical thickness in (m).

Fine- course grained sandstone with thin beds of

conglomerate mudstone and siltstone.
Alternations of sandstone siltstone and mudstone with
few gypsum and dolostone bed at the bottom.
Fossiliferous limestone with beds of shale and marl.
Interbeded siltstone and mudstone at bottom alternations of
shale gypsum and dolostone at the top.
Upper fine- coarse grained sandstone with conglomerate
horizon. Middl fine grained sandstone with mudstone
intercalation.Lower fine -medium grained sandstone with
basal conglomerate.
Sandstone and shale with beds of conglomerate and
siltstone.
Granite gneisses and schistose basement rock.

Figure 8. Regional stratigraphy modified from (Getaneh Assefa, 1991).

26
Figure 9. Regional geological map modified from (GSE, 2015).

3.3 Tectonic setting

The initiation and developments of Grate East African Rift System affects Ethiopia and
crosses its plateau in to two. This was prime causative tectonic force for the formation of
varieties of main and sub continental sedimentary basin that is filled by rapid erosion and
volcanic products (Mengsha Tefera et al., 1996). Northern and central Africa was affected
by the lithospheric extension to north of Blue Nile Basin and SE-NW oriented thinning
(Fairhead, 1988; McHargue et al., 1992; Binks and Fairhead, 1992 cited in Gani et al.,
2008). Blue Nile Basin is formed within NW oriented extensional rift related to the Main
Ethiopian Rift (MER). The rift extension is filled by Mesozoic continental clastics, marine
carbonate to sulphate and volcanic lava (Gani et al., 2008). The Karroo refitting is the
second possible tectonic force to develop the basin that propagated from South Africa and
end up to Ethiopia (Flores, 1973; Kamin-Kaye, 1978; Canon et al., 1981 cited in Welela,
2002). The Northwestern plateau and associated basin’s Mesozoic sediments were
sandwiched unconformabely by basement and volcanic lava flows (Gani and Abdelsalam,
2006 cited in Gani et al., 2008). The Blue Nile Gorge (BNG) sediments are underlain by
the oldest Precambrian basement rock and overlain by trap volcanic (Getaneh Assefa, 1991;
Welela Ahmed, 2002). The extensional to transtensional movement and development in the
African continent is important for the formation of basins followed by depositions of the
karroo (formation overlain by Adigrat sandstone) sediment (Welela Ahmed, 2002). The

27
transgression of see associated with thermal and continuous subsidence of Early Jurassic
period were deposit the Hamanili limestone formation (Welela Ahmed, 2002). Meandering
River and Braided River systems were the main depositional mechanisms of Mugher
Mudstone and DLS formation. This is due to sea withdrawal from central and Northern
Ethiopia in late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Getaneh Assefa, 1991 and Welela Ahmed,
2002). According to Getaneh Assefa (1991) Mugher Mudstone comprise gypsum dolomite
shale alternation with fine to medium grain sandstone. Where the Debre Libanose
Sandstone (DLS) is characterized by fine to medium grained sandstone with laminated
lenses of locally distributed conglomerate. Uplifting and regression processes are
responsible for this formation. (Getaneh Assefa, 1991). Regressionally formed sandstone
series are conformably overlaid the limestone unit of northern Ethiopian plateaus sequence
(Dainelli, 1943 cited in Getaneh Assefa, 1991). Both the Precambrian and Tertiary
volcanics are the commonly associated geologic unites of Blue Nile Basin in addition to
the Mesozoic sedimentary succession (Welel Ahmed, 2009). The Precambrian litholgic
varieties in the basin are (Alghe group) consists of quartzite, granite, granodiorite, gneiss,
hornblende-biotite gneiss and diorite with metasediments (Kazmin, 1975; Mengesha Tefera
et al., 1996 and Welela Ahmed, 2009). The underling high grade metamorphic rocks of
western Ethiopia Geba domain is part of the basins lithology (Teklewoled Ayalew and
Moore, 1989 cited in Welela Ahmed, 2002). It is overlaid by the sedimentary rocks. The
Geologic formation of Blue Nile Basin including the upper sub basin is characterized by a
thick depositional succession of clastics continental sediments of sandstone, siltstone,
Mudstone with shale (Jepsen and Athearn, 1964 as cited in Welela, 2009). This history of
deposition is supported by (Kazmin, 1975; Getaneh Assefa, 1991 and Mengesha Tefera et
al., 1996). The fine to medium grained sandstone, siltstone and mudstone with large
percentage of rounded to sub rounded texture poorly sorted sandstones are the sequence of
sediments are found in basins of Ethiopia (Welela Ahmed, 2009). Those pre Adigerat
(Karroo) clastic sediments are exposed in different parts of Ethiopia around Finchaarea
Ogaden and Mekele Outliers although their distribution is note well established (Jpesne and
Athearn, 1964; Worku T., 1988; Busser and Schrank, 2007 cited in Welela Ahmed, 2009).

CHAPTER FOUR

4 Local geology

28
 Introduction

The research work area is dominated by lithologic units that are classified as Mesozoic,
Tertiary and Quaternary rock varieties in geologic times. The Mekane Selam area is part
of the upper sub - basin of the Blue Nile. Geologically the area consists of both the
sedimentary and volcanic rock types. The current study area is located in the south west
of Mekane Selam town which is built on the plateau of basaltic terrain. The northwestern
plateau and corresponding basin are economically significant to the industry of the
country. The industrial minerals commonly found in the area are most importantly
applicable for the construction and other industrial field of application. However,
metallic mineral exploration and investigation is uncommon to the northern plateau and
basin. Although, at about 35km from Mekane Selam town the sedimentary terrain is
considerably mineralized area. This terrain is known by its sedimentary iron
mineralization which does not extend to the volcanic rock. The study area is localized in
sedimentary succession specifically in the sandstone. The area is selected for this research
work based on the practical exploration of hematite type iron ore mineral concentration
in the environment.
4.1 Geology of the study area

The research area is part of northwestern Ethiopian plateau and sedimentary basin. It
consists of the Mesozoic clastic and carbonate rocks and tertiary volcanic basalts with
associated pyroclastic deposits. The lithological units of the area are exposed to the north
east of the upper Blue Nile River (BNR) cuts to that of Mekane Selam. Dominantly the
study
A area is comprising of fossiliferous limestone, thin beds of mud or shale, coarse lenses
of conglomeratic sandstone, iron ore bed, weathered – fine grained sand sediment and
volcanic lava flows. This stratigraphic section of study area is well exposed from the upper
Blue Nile River onward to the Mekane Selam said. The general succession of rock
stratification is cropped out from limestone to volcanic lavas bottom to top with an inter
beading of iron ore to the sandstone. Except volcanic lavas the rock types of study were
horizontally beaded to the normal sedimentary stratification. The volcanic complexes of
Mekane Selam and surroundings were unconformabley overlay to sedimentary rocks. The
constituent geologic units of the area were mapped together with the inter beaded iron
mineralization that occurs at different blocks as illustrated in (Fig. 10).

29
 A B
Figure 10.Lithological map of the study area (A) and geologic cross section along A-B (B).

4.2 The Limestone Unit

The Blue Nile Basin limestone is extending to the upper sub basin to the Mekane Selam
and Mertule Mariam side from the Basin River gorge. Limestone is the largest lithological
unit exposed in the current research area. This unit is extensively exposed from the river
cut to the sandstone upper succession with approximately 2000m thickness. The limestone
unit of the study area is the steep cliff former carbonate rock near to the river cut. Near the
sandstone boundary, it forms moderate to gentle topography. It is characterized by light,
yellowish and brownish red (Fig.11). The limestone of this area is two types distinctly
different in its fossil content from lower and top parts. It is dominated by fossiliferous
30
carbonates and clastics of the ferruginous materials from the river cut to sandstone contact.
The carbonates are characterized by their fossil content and texturally consists of the micrite
and sparite grains. The limestone is inter bedded with friable yellowish marly carbonates
and very fine sediments of transported from overlaid sandstone. The fossil content of the
unit is not uniform throughout the entire part. The lower portion of the unit is dominantly
fossiliferous and the top near to the sandstone boundary is non-fossiliferous. The Non
fossiliferous limestone has shiny surface and consists of coarse calcite and silicified
precipitates. Upper part of the limestone is form gentle to moderately steep topography of
the area near to the sandstone boundary. The sedimentation mechanisms is vary from well
compacted and lithifid to friable fine sediments of clay and carbonate materials. This unit
is not considered as the host rock for the iron mineralization.

A B

Figure 11. Field photographs of fossiliferous (A) and non - fossiliferous (B) limestone.

4.2.1 Petrography of limestone

The petrographic (thin section) descriptions of limestone is prepared and described using
petrographic microscope. The thin section observation shows fine carbonate grains of non-
translucent (micrite) and cementing of shiny (sparite) grains. Most part of thin section is
occupied by micritic carbonate grains. The transparent sparite components are coarse grains
and are found filling in fractured or dissolved part. The dominant components of the
limestone are orthochemicals and allochems. Micrite and sparites are the main components

31
of orthochemical components. The bioclastic dominated fine limestone components of the
thin section is the micrites and the clear white cementing and precipitated in the dissolved
pores of the lime cavity are the sparites. The allochems are characterized by ooids (spherical
to sub spherical) and peloids (spherical to elongated carbonate grains) and the interaclasts
(elongated fragments) of the limestone components. The ooid - peloid and skeletal
carbonate fragments are erratically distributed within the fine matrix (micrite) component.
The skeletal carbonate grains are few in proportion and display internal structure of ooids.
In terms of percentage the micrite is dominant followed by sparite and the allochems are
occupies the smallest proportion. The limestone thin section of samples MSL4 and MSL6
are photographed from the microscope and illustrated in (Fig. 12).

A
Sparite

Micrite
Micrite

C D

Micrite
Ooid

Interaclast

32
Figure 12.photomicrograph of MSL4 (A) PPL, (B) XPL and MSL6 (C) PPL, (D) XPL for
limestone with 10X magnification power.

4.3 The Mudstone–shale Unit

The shale or mud stone is the second rock type conformably overlies the limestone unit and
is very thin and undifferentiated layer of the study area. It is characterized by yellowish to
light grey with partially cementation by hematite. The exposures of this thin layer of friable
to slightly compacted sediment shows fissility on exposure level. The degree of weathering
in this thin laminated layer is not less than the overlying sandstone. This lithology is not
well exposed and cropping out in small size at the boundary of limestone and sandstone
units. Due to its limited extent it is difficult to map this unit. However, the unit has been
illustrated on the geological map of study area as a thin lamination with limited continuation
bed (Fig. 10).

4.3.1 Petrography of mudstone

Two thin section are prepared for fine compacted to friable sediments. It is prepared from
hard or compacted rock collected at the limestone and sandstone contact to describe under
the microscope. The petrographic characterization of this fissile, friable and fine rock is
dominated by ground mass. It is cementing for coarse grain minerals. The coarse grain
minerals within this rock mainly altered plagioclase and orthoclase (due to weathering)
oxide minerals, and little quartz. Quartz is light or colorless under PPL. The rock is fine
grained and show stratification. (fine ground mass and coarse minerals show sorting) to the
ground mass. The plagioclase of this sample is white grey to brown peleochric in (PPL)
observation. The morphology of the minerals are angular to sub angular and shows
extinction to the cleavage direction. Orthoclase minerals are dark grey angular to sub
angular grain and coarse texture. Rounded and angular dispersed opaque minerals are the
components of this sample. The rock minerals are moderately sorted but highly oxidized to
hematite. The percentage modal compositions of this thin section is determined from the
five respective field of observation. From the total five observation each mineral
composition is recalculated to 100%. The Quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, opaques (iron
oxide) and ground mass modal composition of MSh1 3.6%, 7.2%, 7.2%, 5.2% and 76.8%
while MSh2 comprises 3%, 6.4%, 5.6%, 6.8% and 78.2% Quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase,
oxides and matrix respectively. Weighted composition to 100% shows high proportions of

33
clay as ground mass dominated sediment and low content of quartz and feldspar are
characterize the mudy shale rock. This petrographic description and approximate modal
composition under microscopic observation MSh1 and MSh2 comprises 76.8% and 78.2%
ground mass respectively. Sedimentary rocks with matrix (ground mass) >75% is
considered as mud pitijone (1975). Therefore, those compacted fine sediment samples are
classified as mudstone. The photomicrograph of thin section number MSh1 and MSh2 are
illustrated from (Fig.13).

A B
Orth

Opq

Plg

C D
Orth

Plg

Figure 13.MSh1 (A) XPL, (B) PPL and MSh2 (C) XPL, (D) PPL observation for mudstone with
10X magnification.

4.4 Sandstone

34
Sandstone of the study area is the principal unit and well exposed lithology. This rock type
is characterized as white to brownish grey in color and sandy to gravely in size. It is
exposed on the slightly gentle topography relative to limestone and volcanic basalt. This
lithologic unit of the area is the main target of this research work. The iron mineralization
of the area is hosted within this unit as a continuous horizontal bed and blocks of iron. The
sandstone of study area locally shows two distinct stratigraphic section. It is exposed on the
top of the iron bed and below the ore body. The top section sandstone is exposed as a thin
interlayer on the iron ore. This layer of sandstone is thin weathered overburden for the ore
body and texturally it is fine to medium grain of compacted rock. It is light grey to white
color constituted by fine lenses of quartz gravel. The thickness of overburden for this
section is vary from 0-4m. It is removed completely to partially from the ore body due to
erosion. The most top part of this section is covered by soils derived from weathering of
overlaying basalt. The lower portion of the sandstone has gradational contact with the
limestone and thin mudstone of the area. This section shows structural grading of quartz
gravel and fine sediments. It is characterized by weathered to fresh and fine to coarse sand
grains with lenticular conglomerated thin lamination of gravel size. However, the top
section of sandstone lacks this lower conglomerated lenses. The iron bed is occurs at
different blocks in the study area. The top part sandstone has variable thickness for these
different iron blocks. In Agiagora and Lege worke iron ore blocks the top sandstone section
is weathered and fine rock. The sandstone of these blocks have 1-6m thick. The Millo
blocks have as thick as 2.5-6m and fine sandstone. The lower section sandstone weathered
product is undifferentiated with the residues of iron fragment. The bedding of this
sandstone is characterized by gradational structures with upward grain variations. Fine
cemented silt to clay portion and medium to coarse grained sand and gravel is upward
coarsening with lenses of conglomerated quartz gravel to pebbles. The conglomerated
lenses of quartz ranges from rounded to sub rounded grains in morphology. This sandstone
shows mineralization from the effect of the top iron bead as iron float due to iron bed
fragmentation. It is highly eroded and forms steep valley and slight hills in the study area.
The sandstone that forms hill are mineralized. The extreme erosion and Transportation of
the sandstone from different direction exposes and cut the iron ore continuity in to resistant
sandstone blocks with iron ore bodies.

35
 A B

Weathered and fine top overburden

Sandstone

Iron ore body partially covered by

residual clasts

Fine to medium lower sandstone

with Lenses of conglomerate

Figure 14. Field photographs of top and lower sandstone section and the ore body.

The photograph (Fig.14) shows well exposed iron ore body interlayering in the two distinct
sandstone section (A) and the ore body is slightly exposing but, found in the lower section
partially covered by residual host clasts and weathered laterite iron fragments (B).

The sandstone unit found in the lower section generally consists of fine to medium grained
sands and thinly beaded gravel conglomerated lenses of quartz. It is texturally characterized
by upward grading from fine grain unconsolidated sediments bottom followed by
compacted fine sandstone, then compacted pebbles and boulders of variegated color
alternation with friable clays and sands.

36
 Weathered volcanic products of pyroclastic tuff.
Overlaid to the top most of fine weathered sandstone.
Upward massive and jointed basalt that is parts of the
continental floods of the northern plateau.
Thickness in (m)

Light to gray color weathered sandstone compacted,

Gravels and texturally fine overburden to the iron ore.
Sorted reddish to light fine sand sediment.
Grey color with oxidations of iron.
Gray to light color sandstone well cemented and
lithified. Contains more boulder than lower bed.
Light purple color of coarse sand with fine friable
intercalated pinched out after about 80m length.

Coarse sands of boulders and pebbles grey, light to

brown color interlayered with fine clay to silts of
undifferentiated sediments.
Compacted sand, fine texture from the base and
upward grading with conglomerated lenses.
Friable-compacted, light grey, very fine sediment of thin mud-shale.

Figure 15.Section log taken from the sandstone unit exposed below the basalt and near the road
cut.

4.4.1 Thin section descriptions

Study of rock thin section is vital to understand the history of sediments passed. Through
the polarizing microscope rock fabrics, mineral compositions, grain size, roundness and
sorting and shape were described. A total of five representative sandstone rock samples
were selected based on the grain size, color, weathering degree and other geological
variations for thin section description. These samples are described in petrographic study

37
as commonly three main framework components of quartz, feldspar, lithic (matrix)
framework and other oxide minerals. The thin section samples were observed both under
crossed and plane polarized light. The feldspars are distinguished as the orthoclase and
plagioclase. The identified minerals include orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, opaques and
fine ground mass. The potassic feldspar is dark grey to brown and altered at the boundary
of plagioclase grains. It shows pealeochroism and parallel extinction to the cleavage
surfaces. The quartz is white to brighter grey shade depending on the orientation of mineral
grain. However, the plagioclase is light grey to brownish grey color and altered. The
angular to sub angular grains of the quartz, plagioclase and orthoclase feldspars are the
characteristics of the iron hosting sandstone. The texture is poorly sorted to moderately
sorted and the coarser grained minerals are cemented by fine ground mass. The analyzed
sandstone is compositionally dominated by feldspar and quartz. It is texturally and
compositionally immature. The angular-sub angular texture and immaturity is as a result of
residual and insignificant transportation of sediment deposition. Grain to grain relationship
shows mutual grain boundary and interconnected by fine matrix of binding sediments.
Quartz is the most weathering resistant mineral where the feldspars are easily weathered
but the remnants exist by showing surface alteration. The binding fine sediments are clay,
calcite and silt size quartz. Opaque minerals observed in the thin section with black color
under plane and crossed polarizers are the iron oxides. The open spaces of the sandstone
are filled with secondary minerals as a result of surficial weathering and alteration.
Weathering process has highly affected the orthoclase and plagioclase grain boundary.
These features of the sandstone are clearly observed from the thin section examination of
the rock. The mineralogical modal composition of the thin sections (MSd3, MSd5, MSd6,
MSd8 and MSd10) is given in (Table 4). The modal compositions of individual constituent
minerals are approximately estimated from six fields of observation (FV) and recalculated
to 100%.

Table 1. Recalculated modal compositions of arkose sandstone.

Thin sec. No, Minerals Recalculated mineral

composition

MSd3 Quartz 40.83%

Plagioclase 20%

38
 Orthoclase 16%
Opaque 12%
Ground mass 11.17%
MSd5 Quartz 36%
Plagioclase 26.5%
Orthoclase 29.5%
Opaque 2.33%
Ground mass 5.67%
MSd6 Quartz 15.67%
Plagioclase 33.67%
Orthoclase 45.83%
Opaque 4.5%
Ground mass 0.33%
MSd8 Quartz 12.83%
Plagioclase 30.67%
Orthoclase 40.5%
Opaque 8.5%
Ground mass 7.5%
MSd10 Quartz 49%
Plagioclase 15.67%
Orthoclase 13.5%
Opaque 7.67%
Ground mass 14.16%

The thin section descriptions of five sandstone samples (MSd3, MSd5, MSd6, MSd8 and
MSd10) under petrographic microscope have 11.17%, 5.67%, 0.33%, 7.5% and 14.16%
cementing ground mass respectively. Based on the sandstone rock classification made by
pitijon (1975) the ground mass is less than 15%, feldspar > 25% and low quartz with very
few fragments hence, this sandstone is named as arkose. The petrographic description of
the sample shows the rock is compositionally arkose. Compositional immaturity of the
sandstone is due to both quartz and feldspar contents. Angular – sub angular texture is due
to residually deposited that shows textural immaturity.

39
The sandstone thin section photomicrograph taken from the petrographic microscope are
illustrated as follows.

A B

Alterations at mineral grain boundary

Secondary filling to pore space

Figure 16.MSd5Alteration at the boundary (A) and filled space by secondary minerals (B) in XPL
observation and 10X magnification.

A B
Plg
Plg
Qtz Orth

Orth

Qtz

10X magnification power

Figure 17.MSd3 angular – sub angular and sorted arkose sandstone under XPL (A) and PPL (B).

40
 A B

Orth
Plg

Qtz

Figure 18.MSd6 sorted arkose type sandstone in XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation 10X
magnification.

A B

Figure 19. MSd8 poorly sorted arkose sandstone under XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation with
10X magnification.

41
 A B

10X magnification power

Figure 20.MSd10 moderately sorted arkose type sand under XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation.

4.5 Volcanic lava flow

The northwestern plateau is an extension of continental flood basalts in northern part of

Ethiopia. This volcanic unit is overlaid to the Blue Nile sedimentary Basin. It is define the
Quaternary to Tertiary varieties. The volcanic lava flows found in surrounding to Mekane
Selam area is part of the plateau. It forms the rugged topography of the area. The volcanic
lava flow of the area is thick sequences of about 500m plateau overlaying the iron hosting
sandstone unit. The top part of the lava is extremely weathered and produced fertile soil
product which is used for agriculture practice on the plateau. The main rock unit that
constitutes the volcanic lava in general is basalt and pyroclastic. The basaltic lava flow is
massive to columnar and forms very steep slope mountains of northern Ethiopia. The
pyroclastic tuff and ash materials stratified and structural lenses to the volcanic. The ash
fall deposits and pyroclastic are alternatively stratified with the agglomerated volcanic
boulders. The basaltic lava flows of the area are the principal construction material for road
construction and maintenance.

42
 A B

Figure 21. Massive to Layered volcanic lavas flows (A) and stratified pyroclastic tuff (B).

4.5.1 Petrography of basalt

Petrographic descriptions of the volcanic lava flow found in the Mekane Selam area were
done using two thin sections (MSa1 and MSa5). The petrographic characteristics of this
rock unit mainly plagioclase, biotite, pyroxene and some oxide mineral. Plagioclases of this
thin section sample is light grey to dark grey color, perfectly twined, shows cleavage,
peleochroic and extinction which is parallel to the cleavage direction. The biotite of this
rock is reddish to yellowish color in plane polarized light (PPL). The perfect one directional
cleavage of biotite is clearly displayed under PPL of the microscope. Dark color observed
in the crossed plane polarized (XPL) is the plagioclase but highly weathered part. It is bright
brown-white and its perfect cleavage is displayed in the plane polarized light observation.
The pyroxene mineral of this thin section is occupy some portion of the rock. It is
characterized by pink red and deep green color. It is peleochoic under PPL observations
but due to weathering effect the cleavage is not well distinguished. The reflectance color
of pyroxene in cross polarized light become white under plane polarized light. The oxides

43
minerals of this rock is dark color in both plane polarized light. In sample
MSa1petrographic description plagioclase, biotite and opaques are the identified minerals
with modal compositions of 74.4%, 20.4% and 5.2% respectively. However, MSa5
contains 76.6%, 9.6% and 13.8% modal compositions of plagioclase, opaques and
pyroxene minerals accordingly their order.

The petrographic description and modal composition of studied samples show the rock is
classified as basic volcanic (basalt). The microphotographs of MSa1 and MSa5 are shown
in (Fig.22).

A B

Bit
Plg

Plg

Bit

C D

Pyx

Figure 22.XPL (A) and PPL (B) observation of MSa1 and XPL (C) and PPL (D) observation of
MSa5 basalts by 10X magnification power.

44
 The most mountainous lava flows of the plateau.
Lithologically basalt and stratified pyroclastic
tuff. Varies from slightly weathered culminated
to jointed.

Thin layer of white to grey color fine sandstone

highly weathered and it is the overburden of
Estimated thickness in (m)

iron ore.
The iron bed below the top fine sandstone
characterized by its conformably thin layer to
the sandstone. Occurred as a block varies.
Varigated color and alternations of fine sediment
with coarse to medium grained sandstone.
It is dominated by the lenses of conglomerated
to grvale siz sands of quartz.
Very fine sediments with alternations of mudstone and
shale. Friable and regionally shows fissility structures.

Light to yellowish color of thick cliff escarpments of

Limestone unit of the area. distinctly different
in organic content from bottom to top.

Figure 23.General local stratigraphy of the study area.

CHAPTER FIVE

5 The Mekane Selam iron occurrence

The iron occurrence of Mekane Selam is variably inter bedded within ferruginous fine to
medium grained sandstone. The area is dominated by volcano-sedimentary cover including
limestone, mud-shale, sandstone, bedded iron ore and volcanic rocks. The iron
mineralization is localized within the siliclastic sedimentary formation. White, read-grey
brownish sandstone variety is the main host of the iron occurrence of the area. Specifically
weathered quartz and feldspar dominated fine sedimentary rock is the mineralized rock.
45
The iron ore is overlain by the volcanic rocks. This iron mineralization is part of the
northwestern plateau and conformable to sedimentary rock. The occurrence of iron derived
from residual laterite sandstone profile. The mineralized zone is localized within this
lithologic unit. Iron mineralization occurs as thin bed and fragments of residual hematitic
clasts. The texture of iron fragmentation is angular to sub angular and varies from cobble
to gravel size. At the contact with the basalt and top most sandstone the iron ore is partially
covered by weathered volcanics. The ore body is thin tabular bed in this contact zone.
Mineralized and locally transported gravel size clasts are results of laterite weathering of
surrounding rock. This lateritic weathering is cropped out at the most contact of the ore and
top basalt cover. The iron ore of the area is one of the stratigraphic horizon of the mapped
lithology (Fig. 10). The ore body is mapped mainly within the sandstone. However the iron
ore is found as floats along the valleys. Mineralization zone is observed between the two
distinct sections of sandstone mentioned previously and the ore is forming a bed. Erosion
and gravitational collapse displaced the iron bed to the lower sandstone section. Therefore,
the ore mineralization not restricted in bedded type. It was fragmented and dispersed to
lower sandstone as cobbles and boulders of iron ore. These fragmented ores were mapped
as sandstone with floated iron (Fig. 10).

The Mekan Selam iron mineralization basically occurs within four (4) distinct blocks. The
iron ore body occupies nine (9) small areas in those blocks (see Fig. 10). Classifying the
ore in to different mineralized blocks is for simplicity of mapping purpose. The mineralized
zone is partitioned and identified at different sandstone blocks. Partitioning of the
mineralized zone in to blocks are due to erosion and valley cuts. These mineralized zones
are known by different locality names. The iron ore blocks are locally named as Dasue,
Millo, Agiagora and Lege Worke. Those blocks of mineralization zones are topographically
found in the hill forming sandstone and the ore intercalated within sandstone. However, the
valley forming sandstone is not mineralized. These blocks of iron are remnants of erosion
process and continuity of the ore is washed away from its horizontal bedding. The iron ore
beds have various thickness and overburden sandstone in those different blocks. The
mineralization around Lege worke block thinly bedded and continue horizontally near to
the volcanic contact. The ore body of this block is laterally continuous to the Mekane Selam
town (northeast) and pinched out due to the volcanic (overburden). However, the iron ore
body of Agiagora, Millo and Dasu blocks are non-continuous thin bed. But, ores of those
areas are recognized as hill forming blocks of iron. The ore mineralization of the area is

46
well exposed. The continuity and vertical thickness of the ore body estimated and measured
from simple trenching and exposed ore bodies.

5.1 Nature of mineralization and the ore bodies

The iron mineralization nature of Mekane Selam area is bedded in the sandstone unit of the
area. It also occurs as floats to the flat and valleys of the same unit. This floated iron ore
concentration is due to erosion and residual deposition. The nature of the ore body and type
show variation from hematite-goethite type, stratified-massive and oolitic-lateritic type. In
addition to these nature residual iron clasts characterize the ore body. Medium and course
gravel size hematite iron clasts are typical characteristics of the ore. The observed iron
clasts are products of laterite weathering process. This highly weathered product of ores
residually deposited at the contact of top sand and basalt. It has oolitic and sub angular-sub
rounded texture of gravel size iron. The ore body at the lower contact of light grey-white
and lenses of conglomerated sandstone is layered in nature. The iron mineralization of the
study area is generally characterized by variable nature of deposition. The quality of iron
is high in the gravel size clasts however; fine sand and precipitated silica impurities are
lowering the quality of layered type iron. The iron ore body found at different blocks were
well exposed and easily accessed.

The iron ore of Lege worke block is thin and laterally continue and partially covered by
weathered volcanic. The thickness of iron ore body of this block is variable in different
field observation and measurements. Exposed ore body measurement gives 3m, 4m, 6m,
2m thickness for the ore body at 4 measurement station. The overburden of this bed is
variably as thick as 2-3m average (2.5m). The overlaid sand is weathered fine sand and
become negligible to the east. This horizontally thin bedded iron ore body is extending to
about 4 km from around Agiagora block. The Lege worke block ore body has dramatically
changing overburden materials and vertical thickness. However, the iron mineralization of
Dasu, Millo and Agiagora blocks are found as blocks on the erosion remnant sandstone
hills.

The Millo block ore body is the best in quality and occupies the large thickness. This ore
body has low overburden thickness. The iron ore of this blocks were highly affected by the
valley cut and partitioned to five (5) areas of iron ore bodies (see Fig.10). This block
contains much of iron ore concentration of the study area. The largest ore body thickness
is measured within this block. The iron bed is thick up to 8m from place to place for this

47
specific block. The ore is covered by 3m to negligible overburden fine sandstone. However,
there are field observation and exposed ore body measurements show variable thickness.
Area one of this block has thickness of 2m, 3m, 4m, 5m, and 6m. Area two of the block
shows 2m, 4m, 4m, 5m vertical thickness. 3m, 4m, 4m, 5m and 5m thick ore body is for
area 3. 4m, 5m, 6m, 7m iron ore body thickness measured for area 4. Finally area 5 has 4m,
5m, 7m and 8m iron ore thickness. This field observation and measurement shows the Millo
blocks have the highest vertical thickness and the iron quality of this block is best from
other blocks. The ore body of this block is massive and laminated bed with less residual
clasts. However, the mineralization of Millo block dominated by yellowish color altered
hematite. This heavy and highly altered ore body is the goethite which is reporting by XRD
study. The average overburden and possible depth of the ore body is inferred from 15m
long and 1m deep trench taken in this block.

The third iron mineralization zone is Agiagora block. The ore body of this blocks also have
a variable thickness. An overburden of this block is thin layer sand-sility size sediment.
The exposed ore body is measured at different stops for the block. The field measurement
gives (3m and 4m for ore body one 4m for ore body two and 3m,and 4m thickness for ore
body three from different measurement station. It is very weathered, residually deposited
and massive iron ore type. The ore body of this block is texturally characterized as cobble–
fine sands and angular to sub angular weathered clasts. Residuals and sand grains are
characterized by highly enriched hematitic iron. The ore body thickness and lateral
continuity of mineralization in Agiagora block is assisted by 6m length and 1m depth
manual trench.

Another iron mineralized block of study area is locally named as Dasue. This block is
difficult to access. The Dasue blocks of iron ore is highly weathered. The thickness
decreases towards the northwest volcanic cover. However, the thickness of the ore body
varies at different sites. There are two areas of mineralized zone within this blocks. The
different station exposed ore body measurement in Dasue block shows 2m, 3m and 1m, 2m
vertical thickness for the two ore bodies. Laterite type iron is the characteristics of this
block. The fragmentation of iron clasts in this block shows high quality red streaking
hematite. Extremely weathered and leached quartz grains are in situ deposited. The clastes
are angular and sub angular - sub rounded with less oolitic textures. The ore mineralization
mechanism is residual to erratically disperse within horizontally deposited sandstone. This
type of ore deposition is due to weathering process and surface laterite.

48
Generally the iron ore mineralization of Mekane Selam area observed at different blocks
shows non-uniform ore deposits type. The massive and stratified iron ores are the common
ore deposit type for those various blocks. The mineralized ore is exposed due to erosion
and corresponding cuts. Massive–hard and friable clasts laterite iron ore is the main
characteristics of Mekane Selam iron occurrence. Iron mineralization of Dasue and
Agiagora blocks were characterized as lateritically weathered. However, iron
mineralization of Lege Worke and Millo blocks are dominantly iron bed and oolitic which
lacks lateritic clasts. Therefore, iron ore body of Mekane Selam area is vary from massive
– oolitic (weathering results produce birds eye), inter bedded with the ferruginous
sandstone and lateralized deposit type (Fig.24). These different ore types also have variable
thickness as described above for different blocks. The massive iron ore body shows
surficial tarnished due to the hematite is hydrated to goethite iron ore. The climatic data of
the area is characterized by seasonally high rain fall and found in sub-tropical zone. This is
important environmental condition for Laterite iron mineralization through increase rock
weathering and leaching of metals from Fe source rock.

The quantitative and qualitative XRD analyzed iron ore samples of the area shows the
average content of hematite and goethite (45.3 and 34.3 wt%) respectively. The chemistry
result of those ore samples reports as useful iron. Those mineralogy and chemical analysis
outcome indicates the Mekane Selam iron mineralization has the better quality.

A B C

Figure 24.Field photographs of laterite (A), massive – oolitic (B) and inter bedded (C) iron ore of
the study area.

49
 5.2 Host rock

The Debre libanose sandstone (DLS) of the northwestern Ethiopian plateau is the main host
rock for iron mineralization of Mekane Selam area. The iron occurrence of this area is
restricted to the sandstone unit. The volcanic and other surrounding carbonate rock are not
the host of iron. The sand grain fragments of the host are mineralized in hematite. Those
iron mineralized fragments are sand sized grains and weathering products. The host rock is
weathered and compositionally quartz and feldspar dominated. Fine and gravel size with
alternation lenses of laminated conglomeratic clasts are characteristics of the host. The
mineralization areas are divided to different blocks as mentioned above. The host rock of
Legewerke iron block is variably thick and it is typically reddish brown fine to medium
grained. Weathered, fine–coarse grained sand and silty texture with lenticular
conglomerates are the common features of the host rocks of the ore body. Weathered sand
is enriched by residual and oxidized iron. The lower layer of host rock is course and shows
lenses of quartz gravel. However the top layer of the host is fine grain and non –
conglomeratic sandstone. These two layered sandstones are host and sandwich the iron ore
body. The top fine sandstone is partially covered by weathered volcanics. The sandstone
near the shale-mud contact (Fig.10) moderately sorted, partial-well compacted with
dispersed lenses of quartz gravel. The fine grained fissile shale - mud are contaminated by
hematite precipitation from top iron mineralization. The host rock shows relatively uniform
appearance in vertical section. It is characterized by typical zoning of grain size difference
and interlayering of lateriazed iron bed. In addition, structurally the host is described as
horizontal-sub horizontal striking with almost horizontal bedding. The 2-4 degree dipping
of the bed is due to the horizontal sedimentation is modified by surface weathering process.
The host rock fabrics are locally upward grading and fining for the top sediment.

5.3 Ore and gangue mineralogy

Iron ore is made from various iron bearing minerals and gangue. Iron ore mineral is the
abundant earth’s crust rocks from which the metallic iron is extracted. These ore minerals
exist in different forms and amount in various geologic environments. The identification
of mineralogy of the Mekane Selam iron occurrence is carried out by ore microscope
discrimination and X-ray diffraction study of ore samples. The studied samples of the area
show the ore mineralogy is dominating by hematite and goethite. The content of ore
mineralogy are hematite (30-60%), goethite (8-59%) and magnetite (0.5-3%) while

50
kaolinite (11-23.5%), quartz (1-21%) and anatese (1%) are associated gangues of the iron
ore body of study area.

Hematite, goethite and fragmented magnetite are the XRD identified iron oxides
constituent minerals. However, kaolinite, quartz and others are the corresponding gangue
phases. Using ore microscopy the opaque and oxides found in the host rock are identified
as hematite and goethite ore minerals. Polished section petrography and XRD
mineralogical study revealed hematite, goethite and magnetite are the constituent ore
minerals. However, these studies also revealed kaolinite, quartz and anatase are the major
constituent gangue phases of study area. The Mekane Selam iron ore is oolitic and layered
bright hematite and dark grey kaolinite and Quartz gangues in polished section study.

Goethite is observed as secondary replacing hematite. At grain boundaries hematite shows

replacement by goethite. Surface alteration of goethite is an indication of hematite
replacement by goethite. This replacing goethite shows ooilith-botryoidal texture under
ore microscopic observation (Fig.26 B). It is characterized as red - blue oxidation surface
tints under polished section study (Fig.29 B). It has low reflectance and massive – ooidal
with grey – brown appearance. The goethite is filling spaces between hematite and brown
- dark grey gangues. It shows blared dirty surficial expression around the bright hematite
boundaries. It is randomly dispersing through hematite and gangue. The goethite is
characterized by massive relief and grey bluish tint and replacing the hematite. The shape
is sub hedral and highly altered or oxidized (Fig.27 A). The boundary of goethite and
hematite is distinguished by blue - reddish gangue fine sediment.

Hematite appears as layered main ore and dispersed as cementing matrix between the ore
and gangues. The hematite ore is characterized by bladed, speculare and ooid interlayering
texture (Fig.28 A). The oolith and pisolitic texture of the ore is distorted and perfect ooids
with elliptical - rounded hematite (Fig. 29 A). High reflectance, bright color observation is
typical features of hematite. Horizontal stratification of sedimentary structures with fine
gangues are characteristics of hematite ore under petrographic observation. In addition to
interlayering lenses of hematite grains show wavy and platy appearance to the normal
stratification (Fig.26 A). White to grey white with a bluish tint is typical distinguishing
features of hematite ore mineral. The hematite shows moderate reflectance and bright color
with interlayering features with fine gangue sediments (Fig.26 B).

51
The iron ore of Mekane Selam mainly characterized through its pisolitic (ring of Fe2O3),
bands and oolith hematite and goethite texture in microscope study. The ooid clastes of iron
are mineralized and cemented by hematite. Hematite and goethite iron ore minerals are
alternatively show light and dark reflectance. The textures of these ore minerals are
continuous concentric–elliptical thin layers of oolith under ore petrography. Very rare
disseminated and fragmented magnetite is identified from the polished section examination
as small black dots (Fig. 28 B). Circular to elongated black-grey dark color magnetite is
distributed within bright hematite ore. MS-BD3, MS-B5 and MSB 13 iron ore samples
show magnetite in XRD (Fig.32&33) and as weathering resistant fragmentations in
polished section study respectively.

The mineral paragenesis of iron ore can be determined from the relationship of hematite
and goethite ores. Mutual grain boundary is observed relationship between hematite and
goethite. At the boundary and in between sedimentary interlayers the goethite is on
replacing hematite and gang minerals. The bluish - reddish alteration of iron ores with
erratically dispersed magnetite through the hematite and surrounding gangue are results of
secondary surface weathering. Therefore, the goethite is younger secondary ore mineral.
This ore microscopic study of the iron ore samples were help to infer order of constituent
ore minerals and associated gangue phases. The ore paragenesis and goethite replacement
for hematite in polished iron ore is illustrated in the sketched diagram (Fig. 25 A & B).

Kumar et al (2010) describes the presence of goethite ore mineral is typical characteristic
of laterite iron deposition through recrystallization of micro platy hematite during burial.
Hematite iron ore is precipitated from Fe bearing solutions during continental crust
weathering and input to the basin (Schwertmann, 1969; Worash and Solomon, 2015).
Therefore, these previously determined facts of mineralogical study leads to understand the
iron mineralization of the study area is results of laterite formation.

52
 A B

10X magnification power

Figure 25.Sketched diagram of MSB13 (A) and MSB16 (B) showing mutual grain boundary and
replacement relationship of goethite with hematite and the gangue.

Microphotographs of polished section iron ores are shown below for five selected samples.

A B

Gt

Hm

10X magnification

Figure 26.Photomicrographs of platy-hematite crystals MSB2 (A) and MSB13 (B) oolith and
botryoidal feature of Goethite and interlayered hematite ore.

53
 A B

Fine clay sediments

10X magnified

Figure 27.MSB8 (A) and MSB9 (B), Redish – grey brown weathered Goethite replacing the
hematite and anhedral dumpy crystal developed in association to hematite.

A B

Mg

10X magnification power

Figure 28.MSB13 (A) specularite - interlayered hematite (bright) and MSB14 (B) oolith –
botriodal of goethite red, brownish- grey with disseminated magnetite.

54
 A B
Tarnished goethite
in dissected hematite

10X magnification

Figure 29.MSB16 Ooid speculare-pisolitic fabric (A) and acicular or laths crystals fill voids or
fractures regular reflections of hematite and bluish tint of Goethite iron oxides (B).

The semi quantitative analysis result is presented below (Table 7). The ore and gangue
minerals identified include hematite, goethite, magnetite, kaolinite, quartz and anatase
constituents. The XRD major picks occurs at maximum intensity of diffracted beam in root
counts (Fig 30-34). The picks values are developed at specific crystallized mineral that
corresponding the 2teta values. The pattern of the picks are determined by the intensity
beams of hematite, goethite, kaolinite, quartz and anatase. The crystalline structures of ore
minerals and gangues are identified from the diffracted beam energy. Hematite, goethite
and kaolinite show the most reflection picks. These highest reflection beam tell us the most
abundant ore minerals of the studied iron ore samples. The hematite and goethite dominant
minerals observed from major pick of X-ray diffraction are confirmed in petrographic study
of selected iron ore samples mentioned in the previous section.

Five (MS-B1, MS-B5, MS-B10, MS-DB3 and MS-LW) iron ore with associate rocks are
studid in XRD. The constituent mineral phases of theses ore samples are hematite, goethite,
kaolinite, quartz and anatase. Besides of this minerals MS-B5 and MS-DB3 iron ore
samples collected from Millo and Dasue blocks show small magnetite crystalline reflection
pick respectively (Fig.32&33). The highest reflection pick of radiation indicate hematite is
the most crystalline ore mineral followed by goethite.

The massive and highly weathered samples of MS-B5 and MS-DB3 consists fractions of
magnetite, which is probably the result of laterite weathering. The kaolinite is due to
55
weathering clastic host rock and subsequent substitutions of Fe by Al. It is an indication
of the calcium aluminio silicate (anorthite) feldspar is chemically weathered to form
kaolinite minerals. As shown in the reaction below:

CaAl2Si2O8 + 2CO2 + 3H2O = Al2Si2O5 (OH) 4 + Ca2+ 2HCO3-

Anorthite Kaolinite

Boudeulle and Muller, (1988) describes the laterite origin of iron formation comprises
hematite, goethite and kaolinite. The same components documented from the X-ray
diffraction study of the current work are an indications for the Mekane Selam iron is
genetically laterite.

The quantitative and graphic description XRD study of iron ore samples with their
constituent minerals are shown below (Fig. 30-34).

Figure 30.XDR diffraction of sample MSB-1 layered – massive iron ore middle part –layered rim.

56
Figure 31.XRD diffraction of sample MSB-10 iron ore strata bound with hosted sandstone.

Figure 32.XRD diffractions of sample MSB-5 interlayered needle silica with massive iron ore.

Figure 33.XRD diffraction value for the sample MS-DB3 weathered iron ore.
57
Figure 34.XRD diffraction value of the sample MS-LW massive - oolitic iron ore.

Table 2. XRD mineralogical analysis of iron ore samples.

Minerals wt% MS-B1 MSB-10 MS-B5 MS-DB3 MS-LW

Quartz 1 21 12 12 13
Hematite 40 46.5 50 60 30
Goethite 59 8 32 16 57
Magnetite 3 0.5
Kaolinite 23.5 11
Rutile
Anatas 1 1
Poznámka Ilmenite up Ilmenite up Ilmenite up Ilmenite up
to 1-2wt% to 1-2wt% to 1-2wt% to 1-2wt%

Iron ore samples studied by XRD is also analyzed for some element chemistry. In addition
to their mineralogical content the chemistry of iron samples show Fe content is considered
as useful (Table 8). The concentrations of Al, Si, Fe and Zr show higher value whereas the
alkali metal and alkali earth elements are show low range of value. This is consistent with
the weathering of crust and enrichment in Fe, Al and Si. In other causes the surface
weathering process increases the mobility and removal of Mg and K.

Table 3. Chemistry of iron ore samples analyzed for XRD study.

58
 ppm MS-DB3 MS-B1 MS-B10 MS-B5 MS-LW
Fe 373,736 537,803 249,863 484, 245 462,176
Al 65,073 16,681 91,304 17,140 15.203
Mg 27,793 33661 <LOD 36,217 30,598
Si 72,257 21,856 136,336 62,091 58,439
K 1, 476 1,566 1,308 1,687 1,794
Ca <LOD 1,317 <LOD 1,109 1,861
Ti 7,975 503 8,420 552 <LOD
V 417 <LOD 114 <LOD <LOD
Cr 195 205 148 7,487 221
Pb 367 758 175 572 569

Cl 27,166 28,051 19,793 19,065 22,673

Ga 70 175 31 116 128
As 39 <LOD 32 20 <LOD
Rb 8 28 5 19 19
Sr 22 33 24 54 28
Zr 338 128 458 127 106
Nb 55 68 190 97 77
Mo 55 98 24 77 70
Ag <LOD <LOD <LOD <LOD 9
Sn 49 68 35 61 48
Ba 76 194 49 307 157
Hg <LOD 59 16 25 44
Bi <LOD 17 <LOD 13 17

Lod = less than load of detection.

5.4 Geologic history

The Mekane Selam iron ore mineralization is situated in the Mesozoic-Tertiary sedimentary
environment. Both sedimentary and volcanic associations are characterize the study. The
geologic history of this environment is related with the early Precambrian to recent
sedimentation and volcanisms. The basement rocks inferred as the Precambrian to the lower

59
formation of igneous and metamorphosed varieties. Those are completely covered by the
Mesozoic carbonate and ferruginous clastics rocks. These sediments are resulted from
transgression and regression processes of the sea. The transgression is deposits the oldest
lower Adigrat sandstone. This formation is overlaid to the Precambrian basement which is
not exposed in the study area. The regression process redeposit the meandering and breaded
river sediments. Theses depositions are overlay to the early formation. It is the Debre
Libanose Sandstone (DLS) (Getaneh Assefa, 1991). The current work shows this formation
is the iron bearing rock. It is characterized by medium to fine grained with lenses of
conglomerated sand and gravel size sediments. The sedimentation process is due to
continuous weathering of crustal protolith. The weathering is assisted by transporting
colloid iron in the sediment. The metal suspended to transporting and carrier media is
reprecipitate in the depositional basin (Worash and Solomon, 2015). This iron ore
deposition is enriched later as weathering process were enhancing gradually. Continuously
weathered continental crust rocks deposit fine and thin layer sandstone overlaid to iron ore.
This surface weathering of the iron bearing and early deposited rock enriches the
concentration of Fe and mineralize it. Lastly the eruption of volcanisms linked with the
Afar mantle plume deposits the volcanic lava flows (Fig.35). This volcanism produced the
basaltic lava flows and pyroclastic tuff that overlay to the Mesozoic sediments.

60
 Volcanic

Fine sand
Iron ore
bed
Fe2+ Fine-
Fe2+ medium
Fe2+ cong. sand
2+
Fe
Mud-shale
Lime
stone
Basement

Fe2+ = Fe in
colloidform

Figure 35. Hypothetically sketched for geologic history and model of the ore deposit.

Fe is supplied from the weathered continental crust and transported and deposited in the
basin.

CHAPTER SIX

6 Geochemistry of the sedimentary rocks

Introductions

The chemical compositions of sediments are complex results of sequential processes acting
on preexisting geologic materials. Geochemical behaviors of clastic sedimentary rocks are
outcomes of parent rock composition:-weathering process, climatic condition during
weathering, transportation mechanism and environment of depositional basin. These
geologic processes leave significant geochemical signatures for the detritaly derived
siliclastic sediments. Shale is the most preservative sedimentary rocks of original mineral
concentration and bulk chemistry of rocks (Pittijohn, 1975). It is used to normalizing other
sediment concentrations. Geochemically analyzed silicate as main elements of oxides are
useful information in sedimentary geochemistry. Sediment composition, genesis of

61
sedimentary rocks and the paleo - weathering of sedimentary rocks are inferred from the
major and trace element analysis (Junji et al., 2016). The distribution of REE pattern is
important indicative behavior with the genetic relationship of ores. Enrichment patterns of
LREE is an indication of the sediments derived from the felsic upper continental crust
source (Dupuis et al., 2006). Low content distributions of REE with considerable negative
Ce anomaly is characterize ores originated from magmatic–low temperature hydrothermal
conditions (Mokhtari et al., 2013, Hodkinson et al 1994). The different sedimentary
processes have little effect on the fractionation of REEs Th, U, Sc and Rb (Meng et al.,
2017). The negative Ce anomaly is related with recent weathering process of parent
material. Generally the light REE concentration of silicic sediments show high enrichment
and negative Eu anomaly. It behaves in similar manner with felsic igneous rock (Bekker et
al., 2010). Iron in peat or bog and pond surface sea water is soluble in solutions as Fe 2+.
The geochemistry of pelitic sediments and their response to weathering and metamorphism
process shows a direct relations with protolith concentration. Physico - chemical processes
and geological activities occurred in the earth’s history are complex. These sequences of
processes control the chemistry of sediments. The processes acting on past geologic
materials produce the chemical composition of sediments and rocks exposed currently.
The chemistry and type of sediment that host iron ore needs suitable environment for iron
occurrence. The geochemistry and compositions of sedimentary rocks give a vital
information to understand the host rocks of an ore deposit and genesis. The compositions
of this sediment tell us the source area of sedimentary constitute, information on
sedimentary environment and post sedimentary transformations of protolith. Sediments
become enriched in metals (Zn, Mn Cu) and metallferous minerals are as a result of
exhalation processes at the base floor of seawater including Fe.
In general the geochemical compositions and mineralogical content of clastic sedimentary
rocks are a results of: - the source rock compositions, influence of the atmospheric
environment, rainfall, temperature conditions, chemistry and topography, durations of
weathering, transportation mechanisms and post- depositional mechanisms or digenesis,
metamorphism and deformation (Hayashi et al., 1997).

6.1 Geochemistry of the host rock

The geochemical analysis of sandstone and associated rocks of the study area reveals that
predominant constituent major elements are Fe2O3, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, MnO, TiO2,
Cr2O3 and P2O5 in various proportion. Ba, Ce and Eu concentrations show enrichment and
62
depletion in different samples. In addition, the Sr and Cr content of the analyzed samples
were found to be high. The high concentrations ratio of Th and La is consistent with the
characteristics of silicic rocks. However, the high content of Co, Cr and Sc are
characteristics of basic Provenance. The REE distribution of the analyzed sedimentary
rocks shows a pattern close to typical continental crust composition. The pattern of this
REE in sediments are characterized by enrichment of LREE (La–Sm) and a smooth patterns
of HREE (Gd-Lu) with pronounced depletion of Eu (see Fig. 36).

Major and trace element analysis of sandstone

Feldspar and quartz dominated arkose type sandstone with significant of clays shows wide
variation in major and trace distributions. Major element content of the iron host rock is
expressed in weight percentage in oxide forms while trace elements of iron and its hosts
are expressed as ppm. This detrital sand is composed of SiO2 (56.67-82.10wt %), Al2O3
(3.15-26.09wt %), CaO (0.08-4wt %), MgO (0.03-2wt %), Fe2O3 (0.62-21.1wt %) and a
few content of K2O and Na2O (Table 9). It consists of elevated concentrations of SiO2 with
moderate Al2O3 percentage. Observed high content of Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2 from the
major element analysis are due to laterite process. This chemical analysis of major element
concentration of the analyzed sandstone shows moderately narrow range of variation.
Major element composition of the samples show high concentrations of SiO2 and Al2O3,
moderate to high content of Fe2O3, low concentration of CaO, TiO2, MnO and P2O5 and
absence of Na2O and K2O. The sandstone of the area is the main lithology that hosts the
iron ore body. The composition of the sandstone is evaluated from index of compositional
variation (ICV) using the chemical analysis data. According to Cox et al (1995) ICV =
(Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O + CaO + MgO + MnO +TiO2) / TiO2. The ICV value of the sandstone
varies from high to very high (9.85 - 42.66) with average value of 20.19. This ICV value
of the sandstone indicates that it is composed of more quartz and feldspar with low
proportion of clay content. Total alkali K2O + Na2O shows insignificant change for the
ratio of K2O / Na2O. Based on Nesbitt and Young (1984) the constant value of alkalinity
for the analyzed rock indicates that there is no total destruction of constituent feldspars
from sandstone during surface weathering.

The whole rock trace element chemistry of the analyzed samples has a wide variation. The
main trace element of the bulk chemistry consists Ba, Ce, Cr, Dy, Er, Eu, Gd, Hf, Ho, La,
Lu, Nb, Nd, Pr, Rb, Sm, Sr, Ta, Tb, Th, Tm, U, Y, Yb, Zr, Cd, Co, Cu,Ni, Pb, Sc and
Zn in ppm (Table.10). The chonderite normalized pattern trace element of clastic rocks are
63
enriched in Rb, Hf, Th, Nd, Ce and Sm and slightly depleted in Nb, Ta, Th,Sr and Zr (Fig
37). The trace element analysis of the sandstone samples shows high Zr concentration
except sample MSd4. Alkaline felsic rocks and lower carbonates are the possible sources
for the relatively high concentration of Zr, Nb and other REEs. The high content of light
rare earth elements (La, Ba, Ce and Nd) than heavy rare earth elements is typical features
of laterite iron crust ferruginous source. This is due to weathering process is insignificantly
affect REEs.

Table 4. Major element chemistry of host and associated rock.

Comp.wt MSd1 MSd2 MSd3 MSd4 MSd8 MSd1 MSh MSh MSh
% Arenit Arenit Arenit Arenit Arenit 1 1 2 3
e e e e e Arenit Wake Wake Wake
e s s s
SiO2 77.33 64.18 67.10 64.58 81.92 82.10 70.04 56.67 65.76
Al2O3 7.64 19.26 20.07 8 3.15 5.17 14.75 26.09 20.82
Fe2O3 0.62 5.30 1.79 21.1 0.21 0.65 2.27 3.51 1.69
CaO 0.29 0.17 0.09 4 0.08 0.28 0.34 0.16 0.16
MgO 0.21 0.17 0.08 2 0.03 0.11 0.16 0.07 0.16
Na2O 0 0 0 0.12 0 0 0 0 0
K2O 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0
Cr2O3 0.01 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
TiO2 0.21 1.16 1.56 0 0.35 0.70 1.12 1.40 0.84
MnO 0 0 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0.01 0
P2O5 0 0 0 1.26 0 0 0 0 0
LOI 5.38 8.03 7.53 0 1.55 3.62 7.72 10.26 8
Total 91.69 98.28 98.24 97.53 87.28 92.64 96.41 98.17 97.44

Table 5.Trace element chemistry of the host and surrounding rock.

Comp. MSd1 MSd MSd3 MSd4 MSd8 MSd1 MSh1 MSh2 MSh3
ppm 2 1
Ba 82.02 33.4 45.00 39.82 94.98 115.3 80.58 74.07 86.89
9 6
Ce 33.55 22.6 75.59 73.29 156.0 22.55 57.11 70.56 105.00
4 0
64
 Cr 107.69 107 42.74 90.71 100.0 136.2 89.11 91.07 83.06
4 0
Dy 0.95 1.13 2.57 1.19 0.87 2.41 1.85 1.65 3.87
Er 0.38 1.00 2.00 0.89 0.50 2.04 1.44 1.34 2.78
Eu 2.28 0.20 0.59 0.29 0.81 0.25 0.57 0.49 0.72
Gd 4.00 1.03 2.55 1.17 2.03 1.64 2.11 1.76 2.90
Hf 2.86 11.7 50.74 15.00 6.22 20.27 13.09 24.83 8.89
1
Ho 0.13 0.25 0.57 0.28 0.16 0.66 4.00 0.35 0.91
La 20.62 13.1 53.75 40.17 70.73 13.04 41.51 52.22 60.10
9
Lu 0.06 0.21 0.58 0.21 0.10 0.45 0.28 0.38 0.61
Nb 0.60 18.9 16.39 19.00 3.83 10.32 16.70 20.10 21.13
2
Nd 27.65 6.00 21.60 18.40 80.03 6.36 19.86 25.00 21.45
Pr 4.50 2.34 6.47 7.02 21.06 2.10 5.85 6.85 8.30
Rb 0.84 0.60 1.43 0.28 0.68 2.30 2.83 2.91 6.65
Sm 14.05 0.89 3.43 1.87 7.17 1.12 3.09 3.26 3.26
Sr 101.51 20.3 39.00 54.35 136.3 48.01 88.32 44.10 67.27
0 5
Ta 0.20 1.30 1.22 1.34 0.31 0.88 1.21 1.41 1.40
Tb 0.05 0.16 0.37 0.19 0.18 0.34 0.28 0.25 0.49
Th 3.46 11.1 17.55 16.35 8.38 9.26 11.18 13.79 8.93
3
Tm 0.05 0.15 0.41 0.16 0.07 0.33 0.21 0.21 0.44
U 0.28 1.20 2.63 1.42 0.42 1.48 1.51 1.83 1.81
Y 2.83 6.86 15.52 7.60 3.60 18.88 9.93 9.29 21.52
Yb 0.31 1.36 3.38 1.35 0.52 2.68 1.72 1.99 3.72
Zr 106.58 433. 1980.9 0.89 266.1 812.1 522.69 939.82 332.19
19 7 7 7
Cd 0.04 0.52 1.92 0.73 0.42 1.09 0.67 0.88 0.27
Co 1.78 3.41 1.44 1.81 0.90 1.34 2.70 2.55 3.29
Cu 1.15 12.8 0.66 6.14 0.49 7.35 6.58 4.47 3.11
2
Ni 44.02 17.8 4.49 12.66 4.21 6.43 10.26 6.88 8.90
3
Pb 6.36 7.13 14.60 12.49 19.77 5.01 15.69 15.37 7.28
Sc 9.00 17.1 24.44 16.72 5.39 10.54 12.50 15.39 19.89
9
Zn <bdl 5.45 <bdl 9.78 <bdl <bdl <bdl 0.26 1.53
Total 576.29 760. 2434.6 453.5 992.3 1262. 1025.4 1435.3 898.56
6 7 9 86 3 3

The major and trace element content of mud–shale samples varies widely. Ba, Cr, Sr and
Zr concentration is high in those fine sediments. The LREE/ HREE ratios of the fine
sediment show high value (13.60- 28.22) and the low content of Eu. This is due to the felsic
source rock.
65
One weathered sandstone sample (MSd1) show high concentration of LREE and highly
depleted with HREE. The REE diagram shows general positive Ce and negative Eu
anomaly (Fig. 36). Normalized cerium anomaly is typical of recent sediment because Ce
behaves differently in oxidized condition and exists in Ce4+, Ce3+ state which is absent in
Archean sediments of reduced condition (Ridley,2013). Multi element plot of iron and host
rock is given (in Fig.37). The diagram shows enrichment of Th and Pb for ‘iron ore samples
and depletion of Ba, K and Zr for the host rock. Those enriched and depleted elements
found in the host versus ore shows the iron is concentrated from felsic source rock. The
enrichments of iron ore is due to lateritaization process. The relative concentration of Al2O3
and TiO2 is the result of weathering. Those elements can be incorporated to the clay
mineralogy and iron oxides while Zr is concentrated due to partitioning to coarse grained
sandy quartz. Progressive weathering of parent rock resulted in depletions of soluble cation
(Ca2+, Mg2+ and Sr2+) and enrichments of insoluble elements (Rb, Th, REE and Pb). The
large pick of Th and Pb for the ore sample (Fig.36) is due to enrichment of large ion
lithophile elements (LILE). The enrichment of those elements are mainly dependent on
their mobility and enriched from supra subduction related melt that generates elevated Th,
Pb and Ba (Breeding et al., 2004). The active continental margin setting of analyzed ore
samples (Fig.41) of study area is subduction related setting. This setting is possibly
concentrate those elements in the parent pock. Multi element pattern plot (Fig.37) indicates
that the relative enrichment of Zr in iron ore sample and depleted within the host rock.

Iron
Sandstone
Sample / chondrite

Mud-shale

66
Figure 36. REE pattern for the iron ore, the host rock and surrounding fine sediments.

The high enrichment of LREE and slightly depleted with nearly flat pattern of HREE shows
high degree fractionation between LREE/HREE ratios (La/Lu) in the host rock. Iron ore
sample (MSB11) shows enrichment in HREE as compared with LREE. Sample (MSB15)
is characterized by inconsistent distribution pattern (Fig 36). This is explained by probably
the constituent REE in the ore samples are mobilized during weathering and re-precipitated
out of the depositional environment as relatively compared with other ore samples. The
sandstone sediment (MSd1) is enriched by LREE and highly depleted in HREE that is
deviate the felsic source of sediments. This is due to fraction incorporation of overlaid
volcanic basalt to the source sediments during weathering.
Sample /chondrite

Figure 37. Multi element distribution for both iron ore and host rock samples.

Normalized multi element pattern shows the silisilastic sediments are significantly enriched
in Rb, Th, U, La, Ce, Pb, Pr, Nd, Hf, Sm and slightly depleted in Ba, Sr, Nb, Zr in
comparison to the iron ore (Fig. 37). High pick of Pb concentration is an indication of the
iron ore sample is little affected by digenesis. Because of easily soluble and mobile
behavior of this element. Pb favors for lateritic enrichment. However, immobile Zr favors
to the mechanically distributed heavy grains size minerals.

67
 6.2 Geochemistry of the iron ore
Introduction
Sediments rich in iron are less sensible to solubility during weathering. In general iron is
found in Fe0, Fe2+ and Fe3+ forms of highly reduced, reduced and oxidized states
respectively. But, ferrous and ferric states of (Fe2+ and Fe3+) are the most important once.
The reduced and oxidized state of Fe2+ and Fe3+ determine the types iron ore mineral
(Mansurova et al., 2006). The ferrous (Fe2+) is changed to ferric (Fe3+) as it is exposed in
to the oxidized environment. In high temperature environment ferrous iron (Fe2+) is
substituted by Mn, Mg, Zn, Ni, Ti while ferric (Fe3+) is by Al, V, Ti and Cr. The substitution
of ferric (Fe3+) iron in the tetrahedral lattices of alkali feldspar is the main reason for reddish
alteration granites during weathering. In the oxygenated atmosphere and sea water
environment iron is oxidized to ferric (Fe3+) iron with providing low temperature. Solubility
of ferric iron controls the concentration of Fe3+. because it is complex and has insoluble
behavior. However, Fe2+ is soluble and solutions having reducing character easily mobilize
it. Large amount of iron is precipitated as ferrous iron when the environment is oxidized.

The Precambrian iron precipitation is characterized by typical depletion of LREE compared

with HREE and negative Ce anomaly (Nsoh et al., 2014). However the rare earth element
distribution pattern of the current iron ore shows the relative enrichment of REE and shows
positive Ce anomaly. This results indicate that the iron deposit of the area is not BIF.

The chemical analysis of iron ore samples of Mekane Selam area shows low concentrations
of major elements except SiO2 and Fe2O3. The aluminum content of the iron ore is variable
from low (1.44 wt%) to moderate (19.23wt%) (Table 10). Hematite and silica concentration
is high. Iron content of the study area ranges from low – very high percentage. The iron ore
samples generally coupled with moderately low-highbeside those major oxides the loss on
ignition (LOI) value of Mekane Selam iron ore samples are characterized by medium to
high concentration.

Major element analysis of iron ore

Whole rock composition of Mekane Selam iron mineralization shows high concentration
of Fe2O3. It shows very low contents of MnO and P2O5 and alkali Earth metal oxides. The
terrigenously introduced Al2O3 and SiO2 major oxide and detrital traces of Zr and Nb show
high concentration. ICP-AES analysis shows that iron occurrence chemically composed of
the geochemical fraction of Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO, Al2 O3, and P2O5.
68
The content of major oxides varies from Fe2O3 (16.55% -77.93%), Al2O3, (1.44-19.22%),
SiO2 (8.60 - 59.02%), CaO (0.16-0.39%), MgO and P2O5 (0- 0.19% and 0-0.05%), Cr2O3,
(0.03 - 0.11%) TiO2 (0.02-1.48%). However, a few proportions of MnO, Na2O and K2 O
concentration is found in the analyzed ore samples. Analyzed major content of the ore
samples indicate the quality of the iron with average (48.33wt %) of Fe 2O3. The immobile
elements (Al, Ti and Fe) especially during weathering, digenesis and transportation of
sedimentary process are form their relatively moderate-high concentration of oxides. The
concentration those oxides are derived from felsic continent detritals. The total volatile
content of the iron ore is determine from the temperature loss in ignition that show high –
moderate range of values (Table, 11).

Table 6. Major element geochemistry of the iron ore sample.

Comp.in MSB3 MSB4 MSB6 MSB7 MSB11 MSB12 MSB15

wt% Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore
SiO2 59.02 28.20 24.04 34.23 52.43 38.13 7.31
Al2O3 1.61 17.38 3.83 4.29 19.23 9.66 1.44
Fe2O3 34.31 43.38 68.23 54.86 16.55 43.10 77.93
CaO 0.21 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.16 0.39 0.16
MgO 0 0.02 0.01 0 0.06 0.20 0
K2O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NaO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cr2O3 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.09
Ti2O 0.46 1.17 0.90 1.48 1.06 1.22 0.02
MnO 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0
P2O5 0 0.01 0.02 0.02 0 0.05 0.03
LOI 3.84 9.37 3.80 4.53 9.22 6.65 7.31
Total 99.52 99.85 101.16 99.72 98.75 99.47 94.29

Trace element analysis of iron

The trace analysis of the ore and host rock samples were done using ICP- MS method to
investigate the genesis and other characteristics of the ore. the trace element chemistry

69
analysis of iron ore show variable concentration of Ce ( 2.19 to 43.65ppm), Co ( 0.77 to
1.53ppm), Ni (7.90 to 20.24 ppm), Cu(5.07 to 74.87 ppm), Zn( <bld to 20.33 ppm) and
Cr(83.34 to 234.44 ppm) content of minerals. Several trace elements (Zr, Cr, Ba, Ce, Sr,
La, Th,Cu, Pb and Nb) are enriched in the ore samples of Mekane Selam. Trace element
composition of iron in the study area shows high content of total Zr, Sr, Cr, Ce and Ba.
The mobile (Ba and Sr) trace element content of iron ore varies from low- high proportions.
Whereas immobile element Zr has high concentration. REE ( La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu) patterns normalized to chondurite are given in (Fig. 36).
Eu and Ce show very low and high distribution respectively. The anomalous pattern of Ce
is as a result of Ce3+ oxidized to Ce4+ to concentrate CeO2 in oxidizing environment. The
lack of negative Ce anomaly indicates absence of low surface temperature hydrothermal
solution is contributed for iron mineralization. while the negative Eu anomaly is as a result
of low temperature sedimentary environment due to increasing surface weathering. This
shows absence of leaching for REEs by hydrothermal solution (Glusbey et al, 1997). It is
also indicate that the absence of substituting Ca by Eu during hydrothermal. The negative
Eu anomaly is also due to the effects of sediments are contaminated, mixed, dissolution and
transportation of underlying carbonates during weathering.
Table 7. Trace element analysis of iron ore samples.

Comp.in MSB4 MSB6 MSB7 MSB11 MSB12 MSB15

ppm iron ore iron ore iron ore iron ore iron ore iron ore
Ba 76.24 150.75 125.27 47.47 167.77 265.23
Ce 24.13 43.65 23.34 33.07 39.64 2.19
Cr 220.12 206.89 234.44 190.09 188.59 83.34
Dy 0.72 0.90 0.92 6.75 1.12 0.12
Er 0.57 0.63 0.72 6.38 0.64 0.02
Eu 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.36 0.35 0.06
Gd 0.70 0.91 0.91 3.42 1.28 0.17
Hf 8.20 8.35 11.52 9.30 9.00 0.63
Ho 0.18 0.16 0.24 1.80 0.21 0.01
La 17.74 23.16 16.74 23.09 23.79 1.13
Lu 0.11 0.14 0.13 1.31 0.13 0.01
Nb 25.45 18.84 33.17 20.18 26.37 0.60

70
 Nd 6.98 12.12 8.30 8.42 13.67 0.28
Pr 2.40 4.54 2.41 2.85 4.18 0.20
Rb 1.16 1.00 0.26 0.75 0.86 0.21
Sm 1.08 0.99 1.09 1.28 1.87 0.28
Sr 43.46 88.00 44.72 60.47 91.35 23.32
Ta 1.69 1.24 2.15 1.34 1.69 0.02
Tb 0.11 9.13 0.14 0.80 0.20 0.04
Th 31.50 35.25 40.61 20.52 36.45 25.13
Tm 0.07 0.09 0.12 1.03 0.10 0
U 1.49 1.37 1.40 1.23 1.20 1.03
Y 4.00 4.26 5.56 65.75 4.62 0.10
Yb 0.74 0.73 1.00 7.64 0.90 0.06
Zr 535.76 339.24 470.58 349.03 361.41 38.33
Cd 0.54 0.58 0.88 0.72 0.93 0.05
Co 1.20 1.04 0.77 1.38 1.53 1.06
Cu 9.55 12.19 9.80 5.07 16.29 74.87
Ni 20.24 13.18 15.23 7.90 16.39 15.08
Pb 39.23 41.16 43.37 23.09 36.65 26.91
Sc 12.85 8.93 10.57 10.41 10.81 9.57
Zn 20.33 <bdl <bdl <bdl 2.04 5.66

bdl = below detection limit of the instrument used for analysis.

CHAPTER SEVENE

7 Discussions

Field investigation of the study area gives clues about the ore formation mechanism and
mineralization nature and type of ore deposit. The field observation reveals that the various
developments of erosional unconformity through the vertical section of iron hosting rock.
The ore deposit is in the sedimentary terrain. The iron ore body of the area is varies from
stratified bed and residual fragmentations of iron clasts and gravel size host. These
observation of depositional gaps, geologic terrain and ore type are indications of lateritic
weathering of ferruginous sandstone for the mineralization in the area.

71
The thin section description of rocks are used to determine the degree of weathering and
transportation mechanism. It is also important to identify the constituent minerals within
the rock and for classification. The thin section analysis of sandstone shows the quartz and
altered feldspar. From the results of petrographic description and study the rock is classified
as arkose type sandstone (Table 1). Through progressive enhancing of weathering the
quartz is immobile compared with fine clays and silts. Weathering live surface alteration
and secondary pore space filling to the remnants of arkosic feldspar while quartz grain is
not yet. The quality of sediments are increased by removing fragile and fine sediments
through gradual weathering and transportation. The angular and sub angular grains of the
sandstone constituent minerals under petrographic description were related with significant
transportation of weathered regolith. The petrographic description of iron host rock is
characterized by relative low proportion of matrix and presence altered feldspar and quartz.
Texturally it shows moderate – less sorting of angular and sub angular quartz and feldspars.
Those characteristics of the host rock is results of mineralogical and textural immaturity
due to residual deposition of sediments.

The mineralogical study under ore petrography is important to discriminate the iron ore
minerals, textural characterization and mineral paragenesis of the ore. The polished section
description shows the iron ore samples have dominantly hematite, goethite ore mineralogy
and other gangue phase. The non-fragile magnetite due to weathering is fragmented and
dispersed through hematite boundary and gangues in rare concentration under petrography.
An interlayered hematite observed under petrographic description (Fig.28, 29) are due to
weathering and sedimentation of iron ore. Surface blue wish tarnishing and laterized
goethite in dissected hematite is the manifestations of laterite weathering. The goethite is
concentrated due to recrystallization through replacement of micro platy hematite during
the laterite iron formation (Kumar et al., 2010; Boudeulle and Muller, 1988). Ore
microscopic study of texture and paragenesis characterization of the ores show variable
morphological habit for goethite and hematite is transformed to secondary goethite.
Boudelle and Muller (1988) and Devkota and Paudle (2012) described that these
mineralogical constituent and behavioral characteristic is an indication of laterite iron
mineralization. The hematite occurs as stratified as well as cementing the goethite and
gangues. Hematite and goethite documented from XRD analysis paragenetically
characterized under ore petrography by gradual replacement of goethite for hematite (Fig
25 and 26 B). Based on Sahoo et al (2018), this is due to sedimentary replacement of
hematite through fractures or cleavage surface of minerals by goethite. However, the
72
fragmented rare distribution of magnetite observed in ore petrography is an input due to
detrital derivation.

Mineralogical study of iron ores comprise kaolinite, magnetite, hematite, goethite and
anatase (Fig 30-34). Kaolinite is typical clay mineral that formed by the surface weathering
(supergene) process. The presence of this clay mineralogy in X- ray diffraction analysis
interpreted as the Mekane Selam iron formation is due to laterite process. Anatase is the
titanium polymorph mineral that can be stable for the low surface energy condition. Anatase
is documented from XRD mineralogical study. The presence of this mineral in the ore
sample is an indication of iron mineralization of the study area is due to surface
lateritization. Those mineralogical constituents analyzed quantitatively by XRD from iron
ore samples are characteristics of iron formed from weathering process or laterite (Boudulle
and Muler, 1988).

In addition to this the weathering activity is possibly inferred from the secondary, heavy
immobile and resistant minerals. Elements (Fe, Al and Si) are analyzed from the same iron
ore samples of XRD (Table 3). Those elements are enriched in the ore samples. These
elements are continuously concentrated near to the weathering profile. Because those
elements are immobile and possibly form their corresponding oxides during laterite
process. The surface weathering and subsequent removal of weathering susceptible
constituents of the iron ore show depletion in those easily removable elements (Sc, Rb and
Ba, Mg, K).

Major element analysis of the Mekane Selam iron occurrence show very high quantity of
Fe2O3, SiO2 and moderate to high Al2O3 content (Table 4). The high concentration of those
major oxides are as a result of laterite process. Because their constituent individual elements
are relatively immobile during weathering. The abundant geochemical signatures of those
oxides are typical characteristics of laterite iron formation (Irabor and Okolo, 2010). The
surface chemical weathering (alteration) index / alteration (CIA) is determined from the
chemical analysis data according to Nesbitt and Young (1982) using formula of CIA=
{Al2O3 / (Al2O3 + CaO + Na2O +K2O)*100}.

CIA of iron ore {19.22 / (19.22 + 0.16 +0 + 0)} *100 = 99.17% and {1.61 / (1.61+
0.21+0+0)} *100 = 88.46%, for maximum and minimum chemical value respectively.

CIA of host rock {21.14 / (21.14 + 0.12 +0 +0)} *100 = 99.44% and {3.14 / (3.14 + 0.08
+ 0 + 0)} *100 = 97.52%, for maximum and minimum chemical value respectively. The

73
value of both iron ore and host rock samples of chemically analyzed result have very high
weathering index value. This CIA value show that iron ore and the host rock samples are
subjected to intensive weathering process. The result indicate that the Mekane Selam iron
mineralization is deposited due to the surface laterite through weathering of iron bearing
continental crust rocks.

A B

C D

Figure 38. Liner plots of geochemical data for major oxides of both iron ore and host rock.

The Al2O3 vs SiO2 liner plot (Fig.38 A and B) of the host rock samples show enriched in
both silica and aluminum oxide but, sample (MSd8 and MSd11 are depleted in Al2O3).
74
However, the ore samples are enriched in aluminum oxide and silica except samples
(MSB3 and MSB15) depleted in silica and both Al2O3 and SiO2 respectively (A). The ore
samples are highly enriched in Fe2O3 and SiO2 except sample (MSB15) is depleted in SiO2
while the host rock is depleted by Fe2O3 (B). In laterite weathering process the
concentration of Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2 is increased and positively correlated. Plot Fe2O3
vs SiO2 shows host depletion in Fe2O3. This indicates that the iron ore is separately
deposited and confirm the bedding of field observation to the host. Plot K2O and P2O5 vs
Fe2O3 (Fig.38 C and D) shows iron ore samples have very low concentration in both K2O
and P2O5. However, increasingly enrichment in Fe2O3 for both plot. The depletion in alkali
metal oxides are consistent with easily removal of K during weathering. Depleted P2O5 is
due to little concentration of apatite in iron. Because P is behaved as incompatibly in the
protolith and the absene of phosphate in the iron ore is increase the iron quality and requires
less processing technology.

The very high alteration index value and the relationship behavior of major oxides indicate
that the Mekane Selam iron mineralization is results of surface weathering process. This
shows the study area iron mineralization would have been enriched by surficial supergene
lateriaization through gradual removals of mobile alkali metals and leaching of quartz and
aluminum to high concentration.

Geochemically analyzed ore and host rock samples of the Mekane Selam area is plotted
on the ternary diagram of Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 (Fig. 39). This plot is used to understand the
degree of laterization. For this major oxide ternary plot the host rock samples are plotted in
the region of kaolinization. This shows the host rock of the area is subjected to high degree
of kaolinization to give the kaolinite clay mineral that documented from XRD analysis (see
Fig. 30-34). The ore samples are plotted in the region of weak – strong laterization. This
show that iron ore samples are affected by weak and strong degree of laterization. The ore
samples degree of laterization indicate that Fe mineralization of the area is due to laterite
process. However, the host rock is subjected to high degree of kaolinization in order to
concentrate kaolinite clay minerals. The hematite (Fe2O3) content from the chemistry
analysis (16.55 - 77.93) is concentrated due to gradual increasing of residual laterization.
The high content of SiO2 varies from (56.76-82.10) Table 4 in the sandstone is results of
leached silica during laterization. This high silica concentration in the samples are due to
strong weathering of the host rock subjected to kaolinization process. The ternary plot

75
shows that the residually concentrated iron is increases through the progressive
lateritization.

Iron
Sandstone
Mud- shale

Figure 39.Ternary Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 plot showing different degree of laterizarion for iron
bearing rock after (Shellmann, 1986).

Chemistry of whole rock analysis show the high concentration of Zr, Nb and Al (Table 4).
Zircon is the heavy mineral that is highly resistant to weathering. Al and Nb are deteritaly
derived elements. The high concentration of those elements were an indication of laterite
weathering. The abundance of heavy, accessory and immobile element within the host and
ore shows parent materials subjected to weathering of surface lateritization (Kelepertsis,
2002).

Masidul and Marinal (2020) describe the weathering indices of Al2 O3 / Fe2O3, SiO2 /
Fe2O3, SiO2 /Al2O3 and K2O/ Al2O3 in relation to compositional variability (ICV) of the
source. The geochemical analysis data of the samples give low and high value. This range
of values indicate the compositional variability. ICV of the rock is due to intensive
weathering of parent rocks. The analyzed samples show decreasing in CaO, Na2O, K2O and
enhancing in Al2O3 and SiO2 concentration. Because the laterite process removes those
alkali and alkali earth metal oxides and make enrichments of Al2O3 and SiO2 (Junjie et al.,
2016). The content of these major oxides determine the characteristic of increasing the
degree of weathering (Meng et al., 2017). The concentration of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and
76
TiO2 ranges from high to moderate. The contents of analyzed samples are closely
comparable with the average composition of Upper continental crust (UCC). This indicates
that UCC is the typical source of host rock. However, the concentrations of CaO, MgO and
Na2O – K2O are low. This is less comparable with that of UCC. Because those constituent
elements of the oxide are soluble and mobile during laterization. The contents of TiO2 and
P2O5 of analyzed samples are very low. This depleted concentration of basic TiO2 oxides
is due to the source protolith is highly evolved felsic rock. The P2O5 depletion is indication
of less accessory phase of apatite.

REE plot shows LREE enrichment and HREE relative smooth pattern with negative Eu and
positive Ce anomaly (Fig. 36). This enriched LREE and depleted HREE is due to the source
sediment is crust materials. The negative Eu anomaly shows that the iron mineralization is
a result of oxidizing of iron during laterite formation. It is due to no leaching of Ca and
substitution of Eu because of non-hydrothermal overprinting for mineralization. The high
concentration of Ce observed in the analyzed iron and host rock samples are due to
relatively larger mobility of cerium element in the latraised condition. This anomalous
concentration of cerium because of different behavioral response of Ce to surface
environment to concentrate CeO2 in redox condition.

7.1 Geologic setting

The iron occurrence of Mekane Selam area is mainly associated with the volcano-
sedimentary geologic setup. The area is located in the upper Blue Nine Basin. It comprises
of limestone, intercalated mudy to shale, sandstone and volcanic lava flows with associated
pyroclastic. The upper sub basin of Blue Nile is occupied by the Debre Libanose sandstone
and Mugher mudstone formation. It consists of lower and upper section of sandstone
varieties. The lower sandstone section comprises an alternation of sand lamination and thin
mud–shale. However, the upper formation is alternating to the lateraised iron and
weathered detritals of thin sand sediment. The geology and mineralization with relative
volcano-sedimentary distribution of the area is shown in (Fig. 10). While the stratigraphic
section is presented in (Fig. 22). Massive, weathered – lenticularly stratified conglomerated
sedimentary succession and volcanic pyroclastic are the main characteristics of the setting.
Specfically the sedimentary terrain of the study area is dominated by sandstone succession.
The mineralized zone is suitably associated within this quartz-feldspar abundant
ferruginous sediment. Whereas the volcanic cover is known by basaltic–ash deposits. The

77
arkosic sandstone is host iron. It is underlayed by the bottom limestone and overlain by top
basalt and pyroclastic. The lithological constituents of the area indicate the setting is
continental crust. The iron mineralization of the area is due to weathering of this setting.
The geologic setting of the study area is determined from the whole rock geochemistry.

The ratios of Al2 O3/TiO2 major oxide shows variable values ranging from 7.37-36.38 with
average (16.5). This variation indicates that weathered continental crust is the main supply
of deposited sediment (Fyffe and Pikerill, 1993). Trace and rare earth element stability
during digenesis and weathering are described by Bhatia and Taylor (1981). This study
helps to infer the geologic setting of depositional area for the target area. Enriched pattern
of LREE and relatively flat distribution of HREE with negative Eu anomaly (see Fig. 36)
is compositional characteristic of upper continental crust (Oni et al., 2014). This shows that
the geochemically analyzed rock samples of the study area confirms the continental crust
is the possible source setting. Concentration of trace elements like Zr, Cr, Co, Sc, Hf, Th
and Y are unaltered in concentration at the time of mobilization and deposition (Emamnuel
et al., 2017). The chemistry of analyzed samples show relative high concentration of those
traces. This indicates the host rock has felsic source supplied from upper continental crust.
Th/U ratio vs Th is plotted to understand the probable source area of the sediments (Fig.
40). All analyzed sandstone, mud-shale and iron ore samples are plotted in the upper crust
region. Systematic weathering trend helps to infer the protholith. No any host rock and ore
samples fall in the field of mafic source. The plot indicates there is no mafic source to
supply sediment and metal during laterite deposition. The weathering trend represented by
the trace diagram shows extensively weathered upper continental crust is the main sediment
source and concentrated Fe of the Mekane Selam area. Iron is weathered from the upper
crust with corresponding transportation and deposition. This iron is concentrated as
hematite and goethite in the basin. Therefore, Th / U VS Th trace element diagram shows
the earth’s crust is source of Fe and sedimentary basin is suitable depositional site.
According to Devkota and Paudel (2012) rounded to sub rounded textures of oolit
(weathering result) iron characterize deltaic source. The same result observed under ore
petrography of analyzed ore samples from the study area indicate probably weathered
deltaic and continental clastic are input sources.

78
 Iron

Sandstone

Mud-shale

Figure 40.Plot of Th vs U to show the source of sediments after (McLennan et al., 1993).

Based on Adiotomer et al (2017) the Al2O3 / TiO2, La / Co, Cr / Th ratios with respective
values of (7.39-24.78), (9.73-78.55), (2.43-31.12) are low – high. This content is positively
correlated with felsic protoliths of upper continental crust composition. It is the sources of
concentrated Fe and deposited sediment. In contrast the Ni / Cr ratio of (0.04-0.41) is very
low. This shows that the mafic rock composition has insignificant contribution for the
source of Fe and sediment supply.

7.2 Interpretation

The presence of quartz and Zircon minerals in the analyzed rock samples are an indications
of the Mekane Selam iron formation is due to weathering of iron bearing parent rock. The
angular to sub angular textural grain of iron clasts and host rock are deposited as a result of
residual weathering process. The goethite, hematite, kaolinite, magnetite and rutile
minerals of quantitatively XRD analyzed are interpreted as the iron occurrence of study
area is due to surface laterite. The REE plot suggests that magmatic differentiation process
of the basaltic lava flows fractionates and incorporate some mafic sediments to the felsic
protolith source. Very rare distributions of magnetite found in the iron ore sample is
probably indication of concentration occurring due to wind and water actions to weathered
79
heavy sediments. The secondary iron ore minerals of goethite and hematite reported from
ore petrography are due to Fe enrichment from source rock weathering and corresponding
transportation with deposition in the basin. The high content of Zr and low Eu from
chemical analysis are interpreted as the iron mineralization is originated from residual
weathering. The large concentration of Ce in the studied samples are as a result of surface
supergene leaching of REE at the time of lateritization process. The negative and positive
anomalies of Eu and Ce in normalized plot indicate the absence of hydrothermal input of
Fe but, precipitation of iron from oxidation-reduction activity. Felsic composition
protholith is source rock for deposited sediment were interpreted from the high value of
LREE / HREE ratio and characteristics of enriched pattern of LREE with slightly negative
Eu anomaly and smooth pattern of HREE.

Figure 41.Correlated plot for Si- Qtz and Al- Kaolinite.

80
Relatively good correlation is shown between methods for Si–Qtz and Al– Kaolinite. The
plot of iron ore samples shows the distribution of enriched silica and aluminum with
fractionated immobile titanium concentration during surface weathering process. Positively
correlated plot of Si-Al suggested that the clay mineral (kaolinite) identified in XRD
analysis has been enrichment from silica dominated intensive weathering. The linear
diagrammatic pattern of Ti is negatively correlated with the Si and Al. The relationship is
interpreted as lateritic weathering of crust has insignificant role for Ti enrichment and low
mafic source contribution.

7.3 Genesis of iron

The Dvidson et al (2018) discussions indicates that magmatic-sedimentary depositions are

common genetic mechanism for iron mineralization. Sedimentary ore forming process is
responsible for the Mekane Selam iron occurrence. The iron ore formation of the area
passes through basic sedimentary ore forming mechanisms. The deltaic and terrestrial
continent are sources of iron due to weathering. The surface runoff and wind actions are
the possible transporting media. The valleys of highland and gully erosional surfaces are
used as path ways for iron. The sedimentary basin is depositional site and preservative for
the bedded iron ore. The possible origin of Mekane Selam iron mineralization is understood
from field observations, systematic analysis and interpretations of petrographic–
geochemical data. The iron ore occurrence of the area is hosted in the sandstone. The field
investigation indicate that the possible origin of iron mineralization for in the area is laterite.
Because no mineralization in the volcanic yet. Field investigation of the study reveals that
iron ore body is bounded by two texturally distinct sandstones. The fine-medium grain
sandstone with lenses of conglomerate alternation is underlain to the iron ore body. The
iron ore is overlaid by fine weathered sandstone. This sediment stratigraphic succession
and host rock association is the fact that its origin is sedimentary due to laterite weathering.

The hematite but, replaced by goethite mineralogical content reported from XRD and
characterized using ore petrography for iron ore samples confirm sedimentary origin
(genesis) of iron as a result of laterization (Dvison et al., 2018). Goethite is paragenetically
replacing hematite along the grain boundary of the ore minerals under petrography. This
kind of secondary goethite recrystallization is indication of laterite origin (Sahoo et al.,
2018). The Mekane Selam iron ore petrographic study shows dominant mineralogy of
hematite, goethite and few magnetite fragmentation and other gangue phases. This iron ore

81
minerals show the mineralization mechanism is surface laterite process. Because those
mineral phases are characterized by surface weathering. Iron is concentrated and
reprecipitate in the site of weathering residually. This deposition is occurring within current
continental environment of the sandstone. This concentrated iron sourced from weathered
continent (Worash Getaneh and Solomon Tadesse, 2015) for enrichment as well as
modified by digenetic processes. Large percentage of hematite mineral documented from
XRD and ore petrographic characterization indications of this modification.

Negative anomaly of Eu (see Fig.36) is due to sedimentary and digenesis enrichment of

iron which is not hydrothermal precipitation (Bekker, 2010). High concentration of Cr and
Pb are results of diagenetically enriched iron (Novoselov et al., 2018). The high
concentration of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 observed from geochemical results show immobile
enrichment during weathering and digenesis. This is the typical indication of laterite iron
deposition. The hematite and goethite secondary transformed minerals those documented
from XRD and ore microscope are due to weathering of preexisting iron bearing rock
(Bourman, 1988). Iron originated from laterite minerlogically consists of hematite, goethite
and kaolinite (Boudulle and Muller, 1988; Kumar et al., 2010). The analyzed iron ore
samples using petrography and XRD show those mineralogy. This confirms the genesis is
lateritic.

Normalized chondurite plot of iron and host rock shows high concentration of Ce (Cerium)
(Fig.36). This anomalous value of Ce is consistent with oxidized zone of laterite process
(Devez et al., 2017). Iron ore samples (MSB11) shows enrichment distribution of HREE
(Fig. 36). This is because of the laterite process applied for the Mekane Selam iron leaches
REE and precipitate them in the same depositional basin. Strong enrichment of HREE
observed in iron ore is due to laterite origin or genesis (Beukes et al., 2003). High CIA
values of the host rock (mentioned in previous section) is due to intensive surface
weathering. This weathering of iron bearing sources rock increases iron concentration
(mineralization) of the area.

The major oxides of iron ore and host rock of the study area is plotted on the ternary
diagram of SiO2 - Al2O3 - Fe2O3 (Fig.43). The plot of the ore samples geochemical result
on this ternary diagram is used to understand the possible genesis of iron mineralization of
the study area. Most of the iron ore samples are plotted within the region of laterite except
sample (MSB3). This sample is due to less affected by laterization. However, all other ore
samples are subjected to high degree of laterization to concentrate hematite (Fe 2O3). This
82
plot shows the iron ore samples are enriched due to intensive surface laterite process. The
plot of ore samples show favoring the hematite formation by increasing of laterization while
the host rock is more favoring to kaolinite formation rather than bauxite.

Iron
Sandstone
Mud- shale

Figure 42.Ternary plot of SiO2- Al2O3-Fe2O3 showing iron enrichment by laterite after (Gardner
and Walsh, 1996).

Major oxide geochemical data of iron ore and host rock samples of Mekane Selam are
plotting on SiO2 - Al2O3 - Fe2O3 triangular diagram (Fig. 44). This plot is for genetic
relationship between laterite types that concentrates the iron occurrence of the study area.
The plot shows two iron ore samples are plotted in the region of ferricretes. Those samples
are subjected to residual deposit of ferruginous where the upper zone of ore body is altered
to ferricretes laterite type in which more than 20% Fe2O3 is concentrated. In this ternary
plot much of the ore samples lay in the Fe - Laterite. The trend of plotted ore samples show
the highest concentration of iron is to award Fe-Laterite. This Fe-Laterite is the laterite type
in which the ore is subjected to large degree of laterization and concentrate abundant
hematite ore mineral. The diagram conclude that the genesis of iron in the study area is due
to laterite mineralization. The iron bearing source rock is concentrated as hematite iron
oxide while the quartz-feldspar dominated host rocks were deposited as silica or kaolinite.

Therefore, the Mekane Selam iron occurrence genesis is laterite and ferricretes and Fe–
Laterite are the contributing laterite type for mineralization process.

83
 Iron
Sandstone
Mud-shale

Figure 43. Ternary diagram of SiO2-Al2O3-Fe2O3 showing the genetic relationship after (Dury,
1969; Bassam and Tamar, 1998).

Therefore, the genesis of Mekane Selam iron mineralization is mainly due to sedimentary
ore forming process. The geochemical and mineralogical studies show that laterite surface
weathering is the main genesis. However, the iron deposited by laterite is continuously
modified its concentration and texture by other sedimentary processes.

7.4 Resource of the area

The iron resource of Mekane Selam area has been estimated from the geochemically
analyzed information and field investigation activities. Seven iron ore samples were
analyzed for the Fe content determination. With this information and from the field data
the total iron ore resource of the study area is estimated using the formula of resource = A
*T * ρ where A= the area calculated from different blocks, T is the average thickness and
ρ is the bulk density with the pore volume. XRD study of the iron ore samples show
hematite, goethite and magnetite are the dominant identified mineralogical phases.
According to the data assessed on 7/16/2020 http://webmineral.com the dominant
constituent minerals hematite and goethite bulk density are 5.04g/cm3and 4.13g/cm3
respectively. The average bulk density (4.6g/cm3) of the mineralogical compositions used
to estimate the resource of the area.

84
 Table 8. Estimated resource of Mekane Selam iron occurrence.

Blocks A(m2) Th V(m3) BD T Fe2O3 Av.g T- Tot Total Tota

(m) % r Total al reserve l
tan of each reser
g of block ve of
the the
area area
Millo M1 98437. 4 393750.2 4.6g 1.81M 68.23 0.3 8.8M 20. 2.64 M 4.95
65 4 m/cm ton ton 88 ton M
3
Mto ton
M2 186632 3.75 699870.4 4.6g 3.21M n
.11 1 m/cm ton
3

M3 83047. 4.2 348800.8 4.6g 1.60M 77.93

82 4 m/cm ton
3

M4 64565. 5.5 355111.4 4.6g 1.63M

71 m/cm ton
3

M5 20028. 6 120169.5 4.6g 0.55M 34.31

25 m/cm ton
3

Agia A1 101300 2.5 253252.1 4.6g 1.16 43.38 0.27 2.67M 0.72Mto
gora .87 8 m/c ton n
M3
A2 61867. 4 247469.4 4.6g 1.13
12 8 m/cm
3
A3 23929. 3.5 83752.9 4.6g 0.38 54.86
4 m/cm
3
Dasu D1 65453. 2.5 163633.2 4.6g 0.75M 43.1 0.2 1.64Mt 0.33
e 31 8 m/cm ton on Mton
3
D2 130348 1.5 195522.4 4.6g 0.89M
.28 2 mcm ton
3
Lege L 450352 3.75 1688821. 4.6g 7.77M 16.55 0.16 7.77Mt 1.2Mton
work .51 91 m/cm ton on
e 3

A = Area, Th =Thickness BD= Bulk density T= Tang T-Total= total tang of the blokes
Av. gr.= average grade
The average grade concentrated hematite is under estimate the individual tang of the block
because due to the fact that from all ore body iron ore samples were not analyzed.
85
As indicated in the previous section the thickness of ore is non-uniform through vertical
and horizontal laterite. Having this variations in to consideration the resource estimation of
iron occurrence for the study area average thickness is taken for the calculation. The
average grade is calculated by weighting to the variation in volume. The average thickness
of iron is taken from the measurement of well exposed ore and simple manual trenches with
various vertical thickness and horizontal length for different blocks during field
observation. The less adequately spaced number of field data, limitation on the manual
trenching, difficulty to take hand digging pit and non-incorporated drilling works are
determine the level of geologic knowledge and economic profitability of the study area.
The shape of ore body, dimension are measured from the outcrop and possible trenches.
However, the quantity and quality of iron is determined from results of selected
representative samples. Therefore, based on the field investigation and analyzed samples
for mineralogical content and geochemical information the iron mineralization of Mekane
Selam area could be classified as an indicated resource.

If the geologic knowledge increasing confidentially through the detail sampling closely
spaced drilling and borehole the estimated resource of the area is probably translated to
reserve level.

CHAPTER EIGHT

8 Conclusion and recommendation

8.1 Conclusion

The Mekane Selam iron mineralization is considered as the ore deposit resource that is
formed by sedimentary accumulation and laterite concentration mechanism. This is
understood from the field investigation conducted and other mineralogical and geochemical
analysis in the study area. The petrographic basis show that sandstone of study area is
classified as arkose type consisting 12.83% - 49% detrital quartz grain, (36% - 79.5%)
altered feldspars and 0.33% - 14.16% matrix (ground mass). It is the most possible host
rock for iron mineralization of the area.

Hematite (30-60%), goethite (8-59%), magnetite (0.5-3%), kaolinite (11-23.5%), quartz (1-
21%) and anatase (1%) are the mineralogical composition of ore and gangues of the iron
ore of the area studied using XRD and Ore petrography. Those mineralogy and gangue of
the ore body and associated rocks are interpreted as concentration of iron is due to
86
secondary surface weathering process. Hematite and goethite are the ore minerals that
occupy the large portions of the ore body and associated rock. The digenesis and sediment
recrystallization are a significant Fe ore concentration and modification mechanisms during
mineralization processes. The petrographic study and X-ray diffraction analysis of iron ore
and field observation suggests that the Mekane Selam iron mineralization is enrichment
due to laterite origin (genesis).

The geochemical analysis of high concentration in SiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 and very low
contents of alkali and alkali earth metals (K2O, Na2O, and MgO) with high CIA value are
indicate the major ore forming process is lateritic weathering. Low content of P2O5 and
TiO2 major oxides of chemically analyzed ore and host rock shows the quality of iron and
depleted mantle is not source of deposited sediment. SiO2 - Fe2O3 - Al2O3 ternary diagram
of major oxide plot indicate the iron ore body of the study area is subjected to low and
strong degree of lateritization. However, the host rock of iron ore is subjected to high degree
of kaolinization process. The degree of lateritiztion and kaolinaization concentrate residual
iron and kaolinite (clay mineral) through progressive weathering process respectively.

The geochemical characteristic of host rocks and ore body of study area suggests that felsic
continental crust is the source of clastic rock while passive and active continental margins
are the tectonic setting of depositional basin. Felsic composition protolith and insignificant
role of mafic rock composition is interpreted from the ratios of selected trace element. Very
high to moderate LREE/HREE ratios of whole rock chemistry is interpreted as a result of
strong degree of fractionation through deposition between enriched and depleted REE
content after weathering. Normalized – chondurite enrichment in LREE with negative Eu
and positive Ce anomaly of iron ore and host rocks are consistent with felsic UCC
protholith source and Fe mineralization in oxidized basin. Anomalous concentration of
cerium is as a result of surface supergene oxidation and leaching of REEs are due to
digenetic alteration and modification during sedimentation.

The geochemical result of low content in MgO and absence of sulfur suggest that the
environment of iron deposition is occurrs within non-marine to shallow but, not fully
marine. The REE pattern of the whole rock chemistry shows enrichment in LREE and
relatively smooth distribution of HREE with negative Eu anomaly suggests that the iron
mineralization process of Mekane Selam area is free hydrothermal fluid inputs.

87
The mineralogical content and geochemical data analysis and synthesis are conclude that
the Mekane Selam iron occurrence is genetically laterite and modified by other sedimentary
digenetic process. The chemistry analysis of iron ore body samples indicate the quality of
iron is high contains 16-77wt% Fe2O3 composition and very low proportion of phosphates
(P2O5). Degree of lateritization increase the quality of iron through Fe2O3 oxidation. The
geochemistry, mineralogical study and field observation suggests that iron mineralization
of the study area is classified as an indicated resource. For Mekane selam iron ore deposit
due to continuous erosion, early mining and for its profitability other detail works are
recommended.

8.2 Recommendation

The Mekane Selam iron mineralization is exposed due to continuous erosion and washed
away hence, to save the resource early mining is recommended. A thin overburden
thickness to the ore body makes the mineralization of the area is economically profitable.
This study is to understand the origin of mineralization and preliminary investigation of the
extent However, further drilling, surface excavation and other geological works will needed
to know detail about the resource. The geochemical analysis of ore samples has 48%
average Fe2O3 content this result show that the Mekane Selam iron is useful quality.
Although, the non-geologic aspect (economic condition) and resource estimation requires
detail analysis and study. The good access for ores except some blocks and relatively near
to Addis is important for the economical profitability of iron resource of the area. Finally
further exploration and detail delineation to increase metallic resource of the area is
required within Blue Nile and upper sub Basin.

88
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 Appendix I
Field observation data of ore bodies
Easting Northing Blocks
448795 1182345 Agiagra
448637 1182356
448638 1182252
448635 1182145
448983 1181730
440112 1181742 Legeworke
449149 11811711
449210 1181500
449276 1181048
449518 1180963
449946 1181273
450216 1181370
450338 1181715
450523 1181550
450356 1183447
450379 1183380
450305 1183582
450055 11833887
450052 1183336
449902 1182860
450059 1182602
449829 1182785
449928 1182802 Millo
447946 1182723
449655 1182847
449708 1182862
449760 1182719
451058 1185977 Dasue
451119 1185559
451160 1185608

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 451215 1185694
451304 1185799
449060 1185123
449054 1185137
448822 1185161
448758 1185190

Appendix II
Geochemistry
Major oxide analysis of host rock
Comp.wt MSd1 MSd2 MSd3 MSd4 MSd8 MSd1 MSh MSh MSh
% Arenit Arenit Arenit Arenit Arenit 1 1 2 3
e e e e e Arenit Wake Wake Wake
e s s s
SiO2 77.33 64.18 67.10 64.58 81.92 82.10 70.04 56.67 65.76
Al2O3 7.64 19.26 20.07 8 3.15 5.17 14.75 26.09 20.82
Fe2O3 0.62 5.30 1.79 21.1 0.21 0.65 2.27 3.51 1.69
CaO 0.29 0.17 0.09 4 0.08 0.28 0.34 0.16 0.16
MgO 0.21 0.17 0.08 2 0.03 0.11 0.16 0.07 0.16
Na2O 0 0 0 0.12 0 0 0 0 0
K2O 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0
Cr2O3 0.01 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
TiO2 0.21 1.16 1.56 0 0.35 0.70 1.12 1.40 0.84
MnO 0 0 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0.01 0
P2O5 0 0 0 1.26 0 0 0 0 0
LOI 5.38 8.03 7.53 0 1.55 3.62 7.72 10.26 8
Total 91.69 98.28 98.24 97.53 87.28 92.64 96.41 98.17 97.44

Major oxide analysis of iron ore

Comp.in MSB3 MSB4 MSB6 MSB7 MSB11 MSB12 MSB15
wt% Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore Iron ore
SiO2 59.02 28.20 24.04 34.23 52.43 38.13 7.31
Al2O3 1.61 17.38 3.83 4.29 19.23 9.66 1.44

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 Fe2O3 34.31 43.38 68.23 54.86 16.55 43.10 77.93
CaO 0.21 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.16 0.39 0.16
MgO 0 0.02 0.01 0 0.06 0.20 0
K2O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NaO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cr2O3 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.09
Ti2O 0.46 1.17 0.90 1.48 1.06 1.22 0.02
MnO 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0
P2O5 0 0.01 0.02 0.02 0 0.05 0.03
LOI 3.84 9.37 3.80 4.53 9.22 6.65 7.31
Total 99.52 99.85 101.16 99.72 98.75 99.47 94.29

Appendix III
Mineralogical study
A) XRD

B) Polished section
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