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Rita Singh

Profiling Humans
from their Voice
Profiling Humans from their Voice
Rita Singh

Profiling Humans from their

Voice

123
Rita Singh
Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA, USA

ISBN 978-981-13-8402-8 ISBN 978-981-13-8403-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8403-5
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
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Singapore
“I HAVE SHOWN THAT VOICE QUALITY
DEPENDS ABSOLUTELY UPON BONE
STRUCTURE, THAT BONE STRUCTURE IS
INHERITED, AND THAT THEREFORE VOCAL
QUALITY IS INHERITED.”
—Walter B. Swift, 1916

The possibility of voice inheritance. In Review of Neurology and

Psychiatry, Volume 14, Page 106.
Preface

What is Different

Computational profiling as described in this book differs from prior efforts in one
key respect. The fact that voice is correlated to many human parameters has been
known to scientists, doctors, philosophers, priests, performers, soothsayers—in fact,
to people of myriad vocations for centuries. Many of these correlations have been
scientifically investigated, and demonstrated or proven in many ways. The key
difference between that earlier science, and what this book represents is simply this:
while earlier methods were focused on demonstration and proof of existence (of
such relationships), and used observable relations to attempt to predict human
parameters from voice, the current science does not require such observables. It is
built instead on the hypothesis that if any factor whatsoever influences the human
mind or body, and if that influence can be linked to the human voice production
mechanism through any pathway whatsoever, then there must exist an effect on
voice. The current science of profiling is then all about discovering those effects. If
we hypothesize the existence of some influence, whose effects we cannot model or
observe through standard mechanisms known to us, then we must devise artificially
intelligent mechanisms that can model or observe those. This basically represents a
handover of the capability of discovery to intelligent systems designed by us.
This book traverses pathways hewn through information in multiple disciplines,
and represents one journey undertaken in search of solutions to such mysteries
of the human voice.

About This Book

The ability to shape sound is an amazing gift that most intelligent creatures have.
Some do this in response to stimuli, others do this to convey meaning as well. With
the evolution of intellectual abilities, it was only natural for this ability to evolve to

vii
viii Preface

convey more complex thoughts and deeper meaning. It was also natural, through
the process of natural selection, for those kinds of information-embedding mech-
anisms that were more supportive of survival to remain, propagate, and be refined.
Sound is no exception. Deliberately or inadvertently, partly for evolutionary rea-
sons and partly due to our specific biological construction, information about each
person is embedded in their voice.
At this point in time, we don’t have a good idea of just how much information is
embedded in the human voice. Reasoning about speech as a biomechanical, social,
and cognitive process leads us to believe that there is a tremendous amount of
information in it—more than we are capable of assimilating through our limited
capabilities of auditory observation and perception.
This book captures some of my thoughts, ideas, and research on discovering or
even guessing the range and extent of information embedded in the human voice,
on deriving it quantitatively from voice signals, and using it to infer bio-relevant
facts about the speaker and their environment. In my experience, this endeavor is so
rife with challenges, and human voice is of such tremendous importance, that it
deserves to be assigned the status of a subfield of acoustic intelligence in its own
right—so I call it Profiling Humans from their Voice, which is also the title of this
book.
The book has two parts. Part I takes a sweeping look at the landscape of
scientific explorations into the human voice, which has been the subject of an
astounding volume of research and observation, literally over centuries. Voice, its
acoustics, its content, the effect of various factors on these, and conversely its effect
on them, and on other humans, its perceptions, and its manipulations are all dis-
cussed in this part. This part also dives into the voice signal from a signal pro-
cessing perspective. It (very) briefly elucidates the concepts that might be relevant
or foundational to profiling, attempting to link some subjective observations of the
quality of voice, based on which most human judgments are made, to explainable or
quantifiable signal characteristics.
Part II deals with computational profiling: the computationalization of human
judgment (and beyond). Predicated largely on concepts in machine learning and
artificial intelligence, this part discusses mechanisms for information discovery,
feature engineering, and the deduction of profile parameters from them. It discusses
the subject of reconstructing the human persona from voice, and its reverse—the
reconstruction of voice from information about the human persona. It ends with a
discussion of the applications and future outlook for the science of profiling, and
also ethical issues associated with its use. Issues of reliability, confidence estima-
tion, statistical verification, etc., that are extremely important in practical applica-
tions, are all discussed.
There are multiple chapters under each part, divided up to make the overall
theme of the part easier to navigate. Each part is provided with a summary of the
chapters it includes.
Although meant to be a technical exposition, in my mind this book is a canvas
with dabs of paint from many fields. Together they form a complete picture—but it
is still an underdrawing. There is just so much that one can write in a book of
Preface ix

normal dimensions. As I type the last full stop in this book, it feels incomplete in
many respects. I hope the studies referenced in this book can fill in the missing
details to some extent.
More than anything, I hope this book is both enjoyable and informative to all
readers.

Pittsburgh, PA, USA Rita Singh

March 2019
Acknowledgements

I thank the United States Coast Guard for initiating this research in early December
2014, and for their strong and unfaltering support of it since then. They continue to
drive it forward through constructive feedback from actual field tests of this
technology.
Numerous colleagues across the world have given their opinion, enhanced my
knowledge, and helped me refine my thoughts and perspective. Of those, some who
have had an especially transformative influence on this work are Bhiksha Raj from
Carnegie Mellon University, and Joseph Keshet from Bar-Ilan University. John
McDonough was a source of inspiration to me as a scientist—and continues to be,
though he is no more with us. I thank all from the bottom of my heart.
I thank my family, especially my mother Susheela Singh, my aunt Namita Singh
who passed away since I began writing this book, my sister Sapna a.k.a Jugnu
Singh, and our niece Neha Singh for accomplishing the impossible task of creating
Time. This book was written through times of great turmoil. It was written in
negative time—in the time I didn’t have. For this book to exist, time had to be
manufactured somehow. They solved the problem by making every distraction in
my life vanish for the duration they were in my physical vicinity. It came at the cost
of their time. My friend Satya Venneti did so as well by vanishing for brief periods
and magically reappearing with things that represented significant time savings for
me. I thank Alka Patel, my bravest and ever-smiling friend, for her friendship and
support through all this.
I have been fortunate enough to have spent my entire career working alongside
intellectuals and scholars, who are giants in their own fields. If those, I would like to
especially thank Richard Stern for his invaluable lessons in signal processing and
psychoacoustics, and James Karl Baker for sharing his phenomenal insights into the
subjects of automatic speech recognition, human language, speech and voice in
general. Their scientific perspective, and that of all my colleagues around the world
who I interact with has helped shape my thinking and thereby this book.

xi
xii Acknowledgements

Two important milestones were crossed while this book was being written. The
first was crossed when we demonstrated voice profiling technology as described in
this book for the first time, at the World Economic Forum in Tianjin, China, in
September 2018. It was tested by nearly a thousand people within a span of 3 days.
The systems demonstrated made multiple profile deductions from voice, and also
recreated the speaker’s face in virtual reality. The second milestone was crossed in
February 2019, when we used the reverse of this technology to recreate the voice of
one of the world’s greatest painters—Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669)—from his
self-portraits and other information. This was done in collaboration with
Rijksmuseum of Holland (and their art experts and historians), J. Walter Thompson
Inc. in Amsterdam, and Linguists from Leiden University in Holland with the
sponsorship of ING Bank in Europe. My students Mahmoud Al Ismail, Richard
Tucker, Yandong Wen, Wayne Zhao, Yolanda Gao, Daanish Ali Khan, Shahan Ali
Memon, Hira Yasin, Alex Litzenberger, and Jerry Ding were instrumental in the
creation of both landmarks. In addition to the students who directly contributed to
these, I thank Abelino Jiminez, Anurag Kumar (a.k.a Anurag Last Name
Unknown), Ahmad Shah, Rajat Kulshreshtha, Prakhar Naval, Raymond Xia and
Tyler Vuong for their incredible creativity and continuing contributions to this
work. I wouldn’t have been able to take this research forward without the contri-
bution of all of these students.
Contents

Part I Profiling and the Human Voice

1 Profiling and Its Facets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Features and Signal Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 A Look at the Landscape of Voice Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Parameters That Have Been Correlated to Voice . . . . . 5
1.3 Profiling Humans, by Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Judgments Made from Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Reactions Evoked by Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Computational Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 The Basic Process of Computational Profiling . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 The Basis for Computational Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Key Challenges in Computational Profiling . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Production and Perception of Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 The Vocal Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.1 Anatomy of the Larynx and Vocal Folds . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 The Bio-mechanical Process of Voice Production . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.1 Macro-mechanics of Vocal Fold Vibration . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.2 Micro-mechanics of Vocal Fold Vibration . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 The Sounds We Produce—An Articulatory-Phonetic
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.1 Sound Sources in the Vocal Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.2 Vocal Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.3 The Acoustic Theory of Voice Production . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.4 Ariculatory-Phonetic Units of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

xiii
xiv Contents

2.4 The Uniqueness of Human Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.5 Human Hearing and Perception of Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5.1 Loudness, Pressure, Intensity and Their Perception . . . . 66
2.5.2 Hearing the Spectral Content of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.6 The Human Breath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3 Relations Between Voice and Profile Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1 Physical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2 Physiological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3 Demographic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4 Medical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5 Psychological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.5.1 Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5.2 Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.6 Behavioral Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.7 Sociological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.8 Environmental Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4 The Voice Signal and Its Information Content—1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.1 Capturing the Voice Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.1.1 Analog Transduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.1.2 The Spectral Content of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.1.3 Digitizing the Analog Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2 Analyzing the Digital Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.2.1 Spectral Analysis of a Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.2.2 Analytic Models for Signal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3 Analyzing Time-Varying Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.3.1 Short-Time Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.3.2 Shortcomings of the STFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.3.3 Filter Banks and Filter-Bank Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5 The Voice Signal and Its Information Content—2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.1 Pre-processing a Voice Signal for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2 Time Domain Characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.3 Spectrographic Domain Characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.1 The Spectrogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.2 The Reassigned Spectrogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.3.3 Auditory Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.3.4 The Correlogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.3.5 Modulation Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Contents xv

5.4 Model Domain Characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

5.4.1 The Source-Filter Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.4.2 The Filter: Modeling the Vocal Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.4.3 The Vocal Excitation: The Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.5 Features Derived from the Source and Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.5.1 Pitch and Its Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.5.2 Timing Features from the Excitation Signal . . . . . . . . . 205
5.5.3 Formants and Their Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.5.4 Formant-Based Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.6 Style and Content Based Characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6 Qualitative Aspects of the Voice Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.1 Voice Quality in Broad Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.2 Signal Characteristics Used in the Description of Voice
Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.3 Sub-components of Voice Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.4 Manipulations of Voice Quality: Voice Disguise . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.4.1 Mechanisms of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.4.2 The Range of Alterations of Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.4.3 On Voice Quality Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Part II Computational Profiling

7 Feature Engineering for Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.1 Micro-articulometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.1.1 Articulometric Sectioning of the Voice Signal . . . . . . . 272
7.1.2 Micro and Macro Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.2 Micro-articulometry in Voice Disguise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2.1 The Problem of Breaking Voice Disguise . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.3 Feature Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.4 Feature Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.4.1 Proxy Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.4.2 Feature Discovery Using Artificial Intelligence
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8 Mechanisms for Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.1 Mechanisms for the Deduction of Bio-Relevant Parameters . . . . 300
8.1.1 Machine Learning Algorithms for the Estimation
of Micro-Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.1.2 AI Algorithms for the Estimation of Parameters . . . . . . 304
xvi Contents

8.2 Mechanisms for the Deduction of Environmental

Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.2.1 Enhancing Audio Signals for Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
8.2.2 Profiling for Environmental Sound Emitting
Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9 Reconstruction of the Human Persona in 3D from Voice, and its
Reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.1 Links Between the Human Form and Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.2 Reconstructing the Human Form from Voice: General
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.3 Reconstruction of Face from Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.3.1 Mapping: An Example Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
9.3.2 Transformative Reconstruction: An Example . . . . . . . . 334
9.3.3 Reconstruction: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.4 Reconstruction of Voice from Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.4.1 General Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.4.2 Estimation of Voice Quality from Facial Features . . . . 339
9.4.3 Imposing Voice Quality Features on a Given
Voice Signal: Voice Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.4.4 Face to Voice Generation: The Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.4.5 Voice to Face Generation: The Process Revisited . . . . . 346
9.5 Reconstruction of the Full Body from Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
9.5.1 Estimating Skull Dimensions and Facial
Morphology from Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.5.2 Estimating the Body Structure from the Skull/Face . . . . 351
9.5.3 Algorithmic Process for Body Reconstruction
from Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
9.5.4 Alternate Algorithmic Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
10 Applied Profiling: Uses, Reliability and Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
10.1 Application Areas and Uses of Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.1.1 Law Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.1.2 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.1.3 Health Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.1.4 Social and Commercial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
10.1.5 Gaming and Entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
10.2 Metrics for Operational Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
10.3 Establishing the Reliability of Profile Deductions . . . . . . . . . . . 372
10.3.1 Biased and Unbiased Point Estimates
of Profile Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Contents xvii

10.3.2 Confidence Intervals and Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

10.3.3 Simple Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
10.3.4 Hypothesis Testing in Practice: Introduction . . . . . . . . 378
10.3.5 Hypothesis Testing in Practice: One Sample Tests . . . . 379
10.3.6 Hypothesis Testing in Practice: Two Sample Tests . . . . 381
10.3.7 P-Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
10.3.8 Likelihood Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
10.3.9 Power of a Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
10.4 Finding Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
10.4.1 Measurement of Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
10.5 Computational Ethics in Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
10.5.1 Ethical Use of Profiling Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
10.5.2 Algorithms to Solve Ethical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
10.6 On the Misinterpretation of Visualized Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
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