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 Introduction to
Functional
Equations

K11911_FM.indd 1 12/21/10 11:21 AM

 Introduction to
Functional
Equations

Prasanna K. Sahoo
Palaniappan Kannappan

K11911_FM.indd 3 12/21/10 11:21 AM

 Chapman & Hall/CRC
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Sahoo, Prasanna,
Introduction to functional equations / Prasanna K. Sahoo, Palaniappan Kannappan.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4398-4111-2 (hardback)
1. Functional equations. I. Kannappan, Pl. (Palaniappan) II. Title.

QA431.S15 2011
515’.75--dc22 2010045164

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K11911_FM.indd 4 12/21/10 11:21 AM

Dedication

Dedicated by

Prasanna Sahoo
to his wife Sadhna and son Amit
and
Palaniappan Kannappan
to his wife Renganayaki and his grandchildren
Contents

Preface xiii

1 Additive Cauchy Functional Equation 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Functional Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Solution of Additive Cauchy Functional Equation . . . 3
1.4 Discontinuous Solution of Additive Cauchy Equation . 9
1.5 Other Criteria for Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Additive Functions on the Complex Plane . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 Remaining Cauchy Functional Equations 25

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Solution of the Exponential Cauchy Equation . . . . . . 25
2.3 Solution of the Logarithmic Cauchy Equation . . . . . 28
2.4 Solution of the Multiplicative Cauchy Equation . . . . 30
2.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 Cauchy Equations in Several Variables 39

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Additive Cauchy Equations in Several Variables . . . . 39
3.3 Multiplicative Cauchy Equations in Several Variables . 43
3.4 Other Two Cauchy Equations in Several Variables . . . 44
3.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4 Extension of the Cauchy Functional Equations 49

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Extension of Additive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

vii
viii Contents

5 Applications of Cauchy Functional Equations 61

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2 Area of Rectangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3 Definition of Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.4 Simple and Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.5 Radioactive Disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.6 Characterization of Geometric Distribution . . . . . . . 68
5.7 Characterization of Discrete Normal Distribution . . . 71
5.8 Characterization of Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . 74
5.9 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6 More Applications of Functional Equations 79

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Sum of Powers of Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2.1 Sum of the first n natural numbers . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.2 Sum of square of the first n natural numbers . . 81
6.2.3 Sum of k th power of the first n natural numbers 81
6.3 Sum of Powers of Numbers on Arithmetic Progression . 84
6.4 Number of Possible Pairs Among n Things . . . . . . . 86
6.5 Cardinality of a Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.6 Sum of Some Finite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

7 The Jensen Functional Equation 93

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2 Convex Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.3 The Jensen Functional Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.4 A Related Functional Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

8 Pexider’s Functional Equations 107

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2 Pexider’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.3 Pexiderization of the Jensen Functional Equation . . . 111
8.4 A Related Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9 Quadratic Functional Equation 119

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.2 Biadditive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.3 Continuous Solution of Quadratic Functional Equation 123
9.4 A Representation of Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . 126
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 Contents ix

9.5 Pexiderization of Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . 129

9.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

10 d’Alembert Functional Equation 143

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.2 Continuous Solution of d’Alembert Equation . . . . . . 143
10.3 General Solution of d’Alembert Equation . . . . . . . . 149
10.4 A Charcterization of Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

11 Trigonometric Functional Equations 165

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.2 Solution of a Cosine-Sine Functional Equation . . . . . 166
11.3 Solution of a Sine-Cosine Functional Equation . . . . . 170
11.4 Solution of a Sine Functional Equation . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5 Solution of a Sine Functional Inequality . . . . . . . . . 183
11.6 An Elementary Functional Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

12 Pompeiu Functional Equation 197

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.2 Solution of the Pompeiu Functional Equation . . . . . . 197
12.3 A Generalized Pompeiu Functional Equation . . . . . . 199
12.4 Pexiderized Pompeiu Functional Equation . . . . . . . 202
12.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

13 Hosszú Functional Equation 211

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
13.2 Hosszú Functional Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
13.3 A Generalization of Hosszú Equation . . . . . . . . . . 214
13.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
13.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

14 Davison Functional Equation 227

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
14.2 Continuous Solution of Davison Functional Equation . 227
14.3 General Solution of Davison Functional Equation . . . 230
14.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
x Contents

15 Abel Functional Equation 235

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.2 General Solution of the Abel Functional Equation . . . 236
15.3 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
15.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

16 Mean Value Type Functional Equations 243

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
16.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
16.3 A Mean Value Type Functional Equation . . . . . . . . 245
16.4 Generalizations of Mean Value Type Equation . . . . . 247
16.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
16.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

17 Functional Equations for Distance Measures 269

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
17.2 Solution of Two Functional Equations . . . . . . . . . . 273
17.3 Some Auxiliary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
17.4 Solution of a Generalized Functional Equation . . . . . 286
17.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
17.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

18 Stability of Additive Cauchy Equation 293

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
18.2 Cauchy Sequence and Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . 294
18.3 Hyers’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
18.4 Generalizations of Hyers’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
18.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
18.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

19 Stability of Exponential Cauchy Equations 313

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
19.2 Stability of Exponential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
19.3 Ger Type Stability of Exponential Equation . . . . . . 320
19.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
19.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

20 Stability of d’Alembert and Sine Equations 329

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
20.2 Stability of d’Alembert Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
20.3 Stability of Sine Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
20.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
20.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
 Contents xi

21 Stability of Quadratic Functional Equations 349

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
21.2 Stability of the Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 349
21.3 Stability of Generalized Quadratic Equation . . . . . . 353
21.4 Stability of a Functional Equation of Drygas . . . . . . 360
21.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
21.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

22 Stability of Davison Functional Equation 381

22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
22.2 Stability of Davison Functional Equation . . . . . . . . 381
22.3 Generalized Stability of Davison Equation . . . . . . . 384
22.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
22.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

23 Stability of Hosszú Functional Equation 391

23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
23.2 Stability of Hosszú Functional Equation . . . . . . . . . 392
23.3 Stability of Pexiderized Hosszú Functional Equation . . 394
23.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
23.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

24 Stability of Abel Functional Equation 405

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
24.2 Stability Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
24.3 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
24.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Bibliography 417

Index 441
Preface

The subject of functional equations forms a modern branch of mathe-

matics. The origin of functional equations came about the same time as
the modern definition of function. From 1747 to 1750, J. d’Alembert
published three papers. These three papers were the first on func-
tional equations. The first significant growth of the discipline of func-
tional equations was stimulated by the problem of the parallelogram
law of forces (for a history see Aczél (1966)). In 1769, d’Alembert
reduced this problem to finding solutions of the functional equation
f (x + y) + f (x − y) = 2f (x)f (y). Many celebrated mathematicians
including N.H. Abel, J. Bolyai, A.L. Cauchy, J. d’Alembert, L. Eu-
ler, M. Fréchet, C.F. Gauss, J.L.W.V. Jensen, A.N. Kolmogorov, N.I.
Lobačevskii, J.V. Pexider, and S.D. Poisson have studied functional
equations because of their apparent simplicity and harmonic nature.

Although the modern study of functional equations originated more

than 260 years ago, a significant growth of this discipline occurred dur-
ing the last sixty years. In 1900, David Hilbert suggested in connection
with his fifth problem that, while the theory of differential equations pro-
vides elegant and powerful techniques for solving functional equations,
the differentiability assumptions are not inherently required. Motivated
by Hilbert’s suggestion many researchers have treated various functional
equations without any (or with only mild) regularity assumption. This
effort has given rise to the modern theory of functional equations. The
comprehensive books by S. Pincherle (1906, 1912); E. Picard (1928); G.
Hardy, J.E. Littlewood and G. Polya (1934); M. Ghermanescu (1960); J.
Aczél (1966); and M. Kuczma (1968) also advanced considerably the dis-
cipline of functional equations. Recent books by A.N. Sarkovskii and G.P.
Reljuch (1974); J. Aczél and Z. Daróczy (1975); J. Dhombres (1979);
M. Kuczma (1985); J. Aczél (1987); J. Smital (1988); J. Aczél and J.
Dhombres (1989); M. Kuczma, B. Choczewski, and R. Ger (1990); B.
Ramachandran and K.-S. Lau (1991); L. Székelyhidi (1991); E. Castillo
and M.R. Ruiz-Cobo (1992); C.R. Rao and D.N. Shanbhag (1994); B.R.
Ebanks, P.K. Sahoo and W. Sander (1998); P.K. Sahoo and T. Riedel
(1998); D.H. Hyers, G. Isac and Th.M. Rassias (1998); S.-M. Jung (2001);
S. Czerwik (2002); I. Risteski and V. Covachev (2002); and Pl. Kannap-
pan (2009) have contributed immensely to the further advancement of
this discipline.

xiii
xiv Preface

This book grew out of a set of classnotes by the first author who
taught functional equations as a graduate level introductory course at
the University of Louisville. Our goal in writing this book is to commu-
nicate the mathematical ideas of this subject to the reader and provide
the reader with an elementary exposition of the discipline. All func-
tions appearing in the functional equations treated in this book are real
or complex valued. We did not cover any functional equation where the
unknown functions take on values on algebraic structures such as groups,
rings or fields. The reason for this is to make the presentation as accessi-
ble as possible to students from a variety of disciplines. However, at the
end of each chapter we have included a section to point out various devel-
opments of the main equations treated in that chapter. In addition, we
discuss functional equations in abstract domains like semigroups, groups,
or Banach spaces. The innovation of solving functional equations lies in
finding the right tricks for a particular equation. We have tried to be
generous with explanations. Perhaps there will be places where we be-
labor the obvious. Each chapter (except Chapters 5 and 6) ends with a
set of exercises and some of these problems are adapted from Kuczma
(1964), Stamate (1971), and Makarov et al. (1991).

We now give a brief description of the contents. Chapters 1 through

17 deal with a wide variety of functional equations and Chapters 18
through 24 deal with stability of some of the functional equations con-
sidered in the earlier chapters. Chapter 1 gives an account of additive
functions. In this chapter, we treat the additive Cauchy functional equa-
tion and show that continuous or locally integrable additive functions are
linear. We further explore the behavior of discontinuous additive func-
tions and show that they display a very strange behavior: their graphs
are dense in the plane. To this end, we briefly discuss the Hamel basis
and its use for constructing discontinuous additive functions. A discus-
sion of complex additive functions is also provided in this chapter. This
chapter ends with a set of concluding remarks where we point out some
developments and some open problems related to the additive Cauchy
functional equation.

In Chapter 2, the remaining three Cauchy functional equations are

treated. Chapter 3 presents all four Cauchy functional equations in sev-
eral variables. In this chapter, we show that every additive function in
n variables is a sum of n different additive functions in one variable.
Similarly, we show that every multiplicative function in n variables is a
product of n distinct multiplicative functions in one variable. Analogous
results for exponential functions and logarithmic functions of n variables
are also provided in this chapter. Chapter 4 deals with the problem of ex-
 Preface xv

tending the additive Cauchy functional equation from a smaller domain

to a larger domain that contains the smaller domain.

Chapter 5 examines some applications of Cauchy functional equa-

tions. In this chapter, Cauchy functional equations are used for deriv-
ing formulas for the area of a rectangle, laws of logarithm, simple and
compound interest rates, and radioactive disintegration. In this chapter,
using Cauchy functional equations, we characterize the geometric proba-
bility distribution, the discrete normal probability distribution, and the
normal probability distribution.

In Chapter 6, some more applications of Cauchy functional equations

are given. Suppose fk (n) = 1k + 2k + · · · + nk , where n is a positive
integer and k is a nonnegative integer. Then fk (n) denotes the sum of
the k th power of the first n natural numbers. Finding formulas for fk (n)
has interested mathematicians for more than 300 years since the time of
James Bernoulli (1658–1705). In this chapter, using functional equations,
we give formulas for fk (n) for k = 1, 2, 3, and for arbitrary k we suggest
a functional relationship for finding a formula. Chapter 6 also contains
formulas for the number of possible pairs among n things, cardinality
of a power set, and sum of certain finite series. These formulas are all
obtained using Cauchy functional equations.

Chapter 7 deals with the Jensen functional equation which arises

from the mid-point convexity condition. In this chapter, we derive the
solution of this equation and show that every continuous Jensen func-
tion is affine. We also give continuous solution of the Jensen functional
equation on a closed and bounded interval. In Chapter 8, pexiderized
versions of the Cauchy functional equations as well as the Jensen func-
tional equation are studied.

In Chapter 9, we study biadditive functions, quadratic functions,

and the quadratic functional equation. First we give the solution of the
quadratic functional equation assuming the unknown function to be con-
tinuous. Then we present the solution without assuming any regularity
condition on the unknown function. Finally, we treat the pexiderized
version of the quadratic functional equation.

Chapter 10 examines the solution of the d’Alembert functional equa-

tion. In this chapter, we show that every continuous nontrivial solu-
tion f : R → R of the d’Alembert functional equation is either f (x) =
cosh(αx) or f (x) = cos(βx), where α and β are arbitrary constants.
Furthermore, we show that every nontrivial solution f : R → C of the
d’Alembert functional equation is of the form f (x) = 21 [E(x) + E(x)−1 ],
where E : R → C? is an exponential function. Section 4 of this chapter
xvi Preface

presents a characterization of the cosine function by means of a func-

tional equation due to Van Vleck (1910).
In Chapter 11 we continue with the study of functional equations
related to various trigonometric functions. In Section 2 of this chapter we
determine the general solution of a cosine-sine functional equation f (x −
y) = f (x)f (y)+g(x)g(y). In Section 3, we determine the general solution
of a sine-cosine functional equation f (x + y) = f (x)g(y) + g(x)f (y). In
Section 4, we present the general solution of a sine functional equation
f (x + y)f (x − y) = f (x)2 − f (y)2 . Here, we also present the general
solution of the functional f (x+y)g(x−y) = f (x) g(x)−f (y) g(y). Section
5 of this chapter deals with a sine functional inequality. In Section 6, we
present an elementary functional equation due to Butler (2003) and its
solution due to M.Th. Rassias (2004).
Chapter 12 focuses on a functional equation of Pompeiu (1946),
namely f (x + y + xy) = f (x) + f (y) + f (x)f (y). We first present the
general solution of this functional equation and then determine the gen-
eral solution of a generalized Pompeiu functional equation. Chapter 13
deals with the Hosszú functional equation and a generalization of it.
In Chapter 14, first we present the continuous solution of the Davison
functional equation. Then we find the general solution of this functional
equation without any regularity assumption. Chapter 15 examines the
Abel functional equation. In this chapter, the general solution of the Abel
functional equation is determined without any regularity assumption on
the unknown functions.
Chapter 16 deals with some functional equations that arise from
the mean value theorem of differential calculus. Functional equations
of this type were originated by Pompeiu (1930), but the actual study
of this type of functional equations was started by Aczél (1985), Haruki
(1979) and Kuczma (1991b). In this chapter, we study a mean value
type functional equation and several of its generalizations. In Chapter
17, we examine four functional equations, namely, f (pr, qs)+f (ps, qr) =
(r + s)f (p, q) + (p + q)f (r, s); f (pr, qs) + f (ps, qr) = f (p, q) f (r, s);
f1 (pr, qs) + f2 (ps, qr) = g(p, q) + h(r, s); and f1 (pr, qs) + f2 (ps, qr) =
(r + s)g(p, q) + (p + q)h(r, s) that arise in the characterization of distance
measures. In this chapter, we determine the general solution of these
functional equations on open unit interval (0, 1). In the last section of
this chapter we point out several functional equations whose solutions
are not presently known.
In 1940 S.M. Ulam (see [142]) posed the following problem: If we
replace a given functional equation by a functional inequality, then under
what conditions can we say that the solutions of the inequality are close
 Preface xvii

to the solutions of the equation. For example, given a group (G1 , ·), a
metric group (G2 , ?) with a metric d(·, ·) and a positive number ε, the
Ulam question is: Does there exist a real number δ > 0 such that if the
map f : G1 → G2 satisfies d(f (x · y), f (x) ? f (y)) < δ for all x, y ∈ G1 ,
then a homomorphism T : G1 → G2 exists with d(f (x), T (x)) < ε for
all x, y ∈ G1 ? The first affirmative answer to this question was given by
D. H. Hyers (1941). Hyers result initiated much of the present research
in the stability theory of functional equations. Chapters 18 through 24
present stability of several functional equations studied in the earlier
chapters.
In Chapter 18, the Hyers-Ulam stability of the additive Cauchy func-
tional equation is treated. In Section 3, a stability result due to Hy-
ers (1941) is presented by considering the Cauchy difference (x, y) 7→
f (x + y) − f (x) − f (y) to be bounded. In Section 4, Hyers’ theorem is
generalized by allowing the Cauchy difference to be unbounded. In this
section, the contributions of Aoki (1950) and Rassias (1978) are pre-
sented with their proofs. We have also included works of Gajda (1991)
and Rassias and Šemrl (1992).
Chapter 19 deals with the Hyers-Ulam stability of the exponential
as well as the multiplicative Cauchy functional equations. The notion
of superstability is introduced in this chapter. Ger type stability of the
exponential and the multiplicative Cauchy functional equations is also
investigated. In Section 4, we point out various developments concerning
the superstability of exponential and multiplicative functional equations.
The stability of the d’Alembert functional equation and the sine func-
tional equations are the main topics of Chapter 20. In Section 2, we
consider the Hyers-Ulam stability of the d’Alembert functional equa-
tion and show that if a function f : R → C satisfies the inequality
|f (x + y) + f (x − y) − 2f (x)f (y)| ≤ δ for all x, y ∈ R and for some δ > 0,
then either f is bounded or f is a solution of the d’Alembert functional
equation. In Section 3, we treat the stability of sine functional equation,
namely, f (x + y)f (x − y) = f (x)2 − f (y)2 . In this section, we prove that
any unbounded function f : R → C satisfying the functional inequality
|f (x + y)f (x − y) − f (x)2 + f (y)2 | ≤ δ for all x, y ∈ R and for some δ > 0
has to be a solution of the sine functional equation.
Chapter 21 explores the stability of the quadratic functional equa-
tion. The stability of the pexiderized quadratic functional equation as
well as the Drygas functional equation are also presented. Chapter 22
treats the Hyers-Ulam stability of Davison’s functional equation. Here
the generalized stability of the Davison functional equation is also con-
sidered.
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