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S TUDENT’S G UIDE TO THE

Presidency
Student’s Guides to the U.S. Government Series

Volume 1: Student’s Guide to

Elections
Volume 2: Student’s Guide to
Congress
Volume 3: Student’s Guide to
the Presidency
Volume 4: Student’s Guide to
the Supreme Court
STUDENT’S GUIDE TO THE

Presidency

ADVISORY Editor
Bruce J. Schulman, Ph.D.
Boston University

A Division of SAGE
Washington, D.C.
DEVELOPED, DESIGNED, AND PRODUCED BY

DWJ BOOKS LLC

CQ Press
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Washington, DC 20037

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Copyright © 2009 by CQ Press, a division of SAGE. CQ Press is a registered trademark of Congressional Quarterly Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

Cover design: Matthew Simmons/www.MyselfIncluded.com

Photo acknowledgments for the Primary Source Library: Library of Congress: pp. 340, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348, 351; The Granger
Collection, New York: p. 342; Montgomery C. Meigs Papers, Manuscript Div., Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: p. 347;
Theodore Roosevelt Collection, Harvard College Library: p. 354; Ralph E. Becker Collection, Smithsonian Institution: p. 356;
Herbert Orth, Time Life Pictures, Getty Images: p. 359; MPI, Getty Images: p. 362; AP Images: pp. 363, 365, 367, 368, 371;
Scott J. Ferrell, CQ: p. 375.

The paper used in this publication exceeds the requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—
Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48–1992.

Printed and bound in the United Stated of America

12 11 10 09 08 1 2 3 4 5

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Student's guide to the presidency

p. cm. — (Student's guides to the U.S. Government series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-87289-555-3
1. Presidents—United States. 2. Executive power—United States.
I. Schulman, Bruce J. II. Title. III. Series.
JK516.S8 2009
352.230973—dc22 2008050731
 C ONTENTS

List of Illustrations viii Clinton, Bill, Administration of (1993–2001) 66

Reader’s Guide x Commander in Chief 69
About the Advisory Editor xiii Constitution of the United States 73
Preface xiv Constitutional Convention and the Presidency 74
Historical Milestones of the U.S. Presidency, Conventions, Presidential Nominating 78
1788–2009: A Timeline xvi Justice for All: Geraldine Ferraro (1935– )
Coolidge, Calvin, Administration of
Part One: ESSAYS (1923–1929) 86
The Executive Branch: Behind the Scenes Democratic Party (1828– ) 88
Since 1789 1 Department of Agriculture (USDA) 93
Power Trip? How Presidents Have Increased Department of Commerce 94
the Power of the Office 11 Department of Defense (DOD) 95
Is the U.S. President the Most Powerful Spotlight: Department of War and
Leader in the World? 17 Department of the Navy
Department of Education 97
Part Two: THE PRESIDENCY A TO Z Department of Energy (DOE) 98
Adams, John, Administration of (1797–1801) 26 Department of Health and Human
Justice for All: Midnight Judges Services (HHS) 98
Adams, John Quincy, Administration of Department of Homeland Security (DHS) 99
(1825–1829) 28 Decision Makers: Michael Chertoff (1953– )
Air Force One 29 Department of Housing and Urban Development
Arthur, Chester A., Administration of (HUD) 102
(1881–1885) 31 Decision Makers: Alphonso Jackson (1945– )
Assassinations and Assassination Attempts 31 Department of Justice 103
Buchanan, James, Administration of Justice for All: John Mitchell (1913–1988)
(1857–1861) 36 Department of Labor 106
Bush v. Gore (2000) 36 Department of State 107
Justice for All: The Dred Scott Case (1857) Decision Makers: Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)
Bush, George H.W., Administration of Department of the Interior 109
(1989–1993) 41 Justice for All: Albert Fall (1861–1944)
Bush, George W., Administration of Department of the Treasury 110
(2001–2009) 44 Decision Makers: Alexander Hamilton (1757–1804)
Cabinet 47 Department of Transportation (DOT) 112
Carter, Jimmy, Administration of Department of Veterans Affairs 113
(1977–1981) 49 Eisenhower, Dwight D., Administration of
Chief Diplomat 52 (1953–1961) 114
Chief Economist 54 Election of 2008 116
Chief Executive 56 Elections, Presidential 117
Chief of State 56 Electoral College 118
Civil Service System 57 Emergency Powers 120
Cleveland, Grover, Administrations of Executive Agreements 126
(1885–1889, 1893–1897) 64 Executive Departments 128

v
★ vi ★ Contents

Executive Orders 132 National Security Council 192

Federalism 135 Decision Makers: Henry Kissinger (1923– )
Federalist Party (1792–1816) 135 Nixon, Richard M., Administration of
Fillmore, Millard, Administration of (1969–1974) 196
(1850–1853) 137 Oath of Office 199
First Lady 137 Office of Management and Budget 200
Spotlight: Martha Washington and Laura Bush PACs (Political Action Committees) 202
Ford, Gerald R., Administration of Pierce, Franklin, Administration of
(1974–1977) 140 (1853–1857) 202
Foreign Policy and the Presidency 142 Pocket Veto 204
Garfield, James A., Administration of (1881) 144 Political Parties and the President 206
Gore, Albert (1948– ) 145 Polk, James, Administration of (1845–1849) 208
Government Agencies and Corporations 147 Presidency and Congress 210
Grant, Ulysses S., Administration of Presidency and the Bureaucracy 215
(1869–1877) 151 Presidency and the Media 217
Harding, Warren, Administration of Presidency and the Supreme Court 220
(1921–1923) 153 Presidency, Qualifications for 227
Harrison, Benjamin, Administration of Presidential Appearances and Public Appeals 230
(1889–1893) 154 Presidential Campaigns 233
Harrison, William Henry, Administration Presidential Commissions 236
of (1841) 156 Presidential Debates 238
Hayes, Rutherford B., Administration of Presidential Disability 239
(1877–1881) 157 Point/Counterpoint: Should Third Party
Hoover, Herbert, Administration of Candidates Participate in Presidential Debates?
(1929–1933) 158 Presidential Pardons 246
Impeachment, Presidential 160 Presidential Primaries 247
Impoundment Powers 162 Presidential Salaries and Benefits 251
Inaugural Address 164 Presidential Succession 258
Jackson, Andrew, Administration of Point/Counterpoint: Should Presidential
(1829–1837) 166 Vacancies Be Filled by Special Election?
Jefferson, Thomas, Administration of Public Opinion and the Presidency 262
(1801–1809) 170 Reagan, Ronald, Administration of
Johnson, Andrew, Administration of (1981–1989) 267
(1865–1869) 172 Republican Party (1854– ) 269
Johnson, Lyndon B., Administration of Roosevelt, Franklin D., Administration of
(1963–1969) 174 (1933–1945) 273
Kennedy, John F., Administration of Roosevelt, Theodore, Administration of
(1961–1963) 176 (1901–1909) 276
Spotlight: The Berlin Wall, 1961 and 1989 Secret Service 279
Legislative Leader 179 Spotlight: Who Is Eligible for Secret Service
Lincoln, Abraham, Administration of Protection?
(1861–1865) 181 Separation of Powers 285
Spotlight: Jefferson Davis State of the Union Address 285
Line-Item Veto 185 Taft, William Howard, Administration of
Madison, James, Administration of (1909–1913) 288
(1809–1817) 186 Taylor, Zachary, Administration of
McKinley, William, Administration of (1849–1850) 290
(1897–1901) 188 Third Parties and Presidential Elections 290
Monroe, James, Administration of Point/Counterpoint: Are Third Parties Relevant?
(1817–1825) 190 The Transition Period 297
 ★
Contents ★ vii

The Treaty Power 299 Twelfth Amendment, 1804 341

Truman, Harry S., Administration of Thomas Jefferson Being Robbed by
(1945–1953) 303 King George III and Napoleon, 1809 342
Twelfth Amendment (1804) 306 King Andrew I, 1832 343
Twentieth Amendment (1933) 307 A Hard Road to Hoe, 1840 344
Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967) 308 Keep the Ball Rolling, 1840 345
Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) 310 Harrison Memorial Ribbon, 1841 346
Twenty-second Amendment (1951) 310 James Buchanan’s Inauguration,
Point/Counterpoint: Should the March 4, 1857 347
Twenty-second Amendment Be Repealed? Union Is Dissolved! 1860 348
Twenty-third Amendment (1961) 312 Lincoln’s First Inaugural Address, 1861 349
Tyler, John, Administration of (1841–1845) 313 Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address, 1865 350
Van Buren, Martin, Administration of Congressional Government, 1885 352
(1837–1841) 316 Point/Counterpoint: Two Views
Veto Power 317 of Executive Authority
Vice Presidency 320 President McKinley Shot Down, 1901 356
Vice Presidential Vacancies 323 Twentieth Amendment, 1933 357
War Powers Resolution 327 Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms Speech, 1941 358
Washington, George, Administration of Twenty-second Amendment, 1951 360
(1789–1797) 328 Twenty-third Amendment, 1961 360
Spotlight: Precedents Established Twenty-fourth Amendment, 1964 361
by George Washington Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 1964 361
Watergate Scandal 332 Twenty-fifth Amendment, 1967 363
Whig Party (1834–1856) 332 Vice President Spiro T. Agnew Resigns, 1973 365
White House 334 President Richard Nixon’s Letter
Spotlight: White House Renovations of Resignation, August 9, 1974 367
Wilson, Woodrow, Administration of (1913–1921) 336 Gerald R. Ford’s Pardon of Richard Nixon, 1974 368
George W. Bush’s Speech, September 11, 2001 370
Part Three: PRIMARY SOURCE State of the Union Address, 2008 372
LIBRARY
United States Constitution, Article I, Using Primary Sources 376
Section 7, 1789 339 Glossary 379
United States Constitution, Article II, Selected Bibliography 383
Section 3, 1789 340 General Index 387
 L IST OF I LLUSTRA TIONS

Charts/Graphs Voters protesting Florida decision 40

Civil Service Reforms 63 Cartoon: No New Taxes 42
Major U.S. Military Interventions, 1961–2008 71 Cartoon: Greenhouse Gases 45
The Electoral College, 1900–2008 119 Washington and his Cabinet 48
Categories and Examples of Emergency Powers 124 President Carter with Sadat and Begin 50
Governors Who Became President 228 Banner celebrating Cleveland’s return
Members of Congress Who Became President 229 to the White House, 1893 64
Constitutional Requirements for the President 229 Cartoon: Grover Cleveland 65
Line of Succession 259 President Clinton and NAFTA 68
The First Hundred Days of Franklin D. Roosevelt 274 Robert M. Gates 95
Vice Presidents Often Attain Top Spot 321 JFK with brother Robert Kennedy 104
Condoleezza Rice 107
Tables Cartoon: Eisenhower 114
Cabinet Departments 47 President Eisenhower with Churchill 115
Civilian Employees, Executive Branch, Clinton meeting with top aides 130
1816–2006 131 Alexander Hamilton 136
Executive Orders, By President, 1789–2008 133 Eleanor Roosevelt 138
Key Provisions of the Compromise of 1850 137 President Clinton at Mideast talks 143
Presidential Appearances Before Congress, Ulysses S. Grant 151
1789–2008 212 Cartoon: African Americans Voting 152
Overall Presidential Approval Ratings, Cartoon: Benjamin Harrison 155
1953–2008 (percent) 266 JFK’s inaugural ceremony 165
Major Responsibilities of the Secret Service 280 Cartoon: Jackson Attacking the
Major Themes in State of the Union Addresses, Bank of the U.S. 169
1961–2008 286 Nixon waving from helicopter after resigning 197
Top Vote-Winning Third Parties, 1832–2008 293 Cartoon: Bureaucracy 216
Growth of Transition Teams and Expenditures, Reagan-Carter debates 239
1952–2001 298 Lyndon B. Johnson taking oath of office
Vetoes and Vetoes Overridden, All Bills, on Air Force One 245
1789–2008 318 Theodore Roosevelt campaigning 251
Cartoon: Uncle Sam Demonstrates His Support
Maps of Roosevelt’s New Deal 275
Disputed Election of 1876 157 Secret Service during Reagan assassination
U.S. During the Civil War 184 attempt 281
Kansas-Nebraska Act 203 Cartoon: Taft 289
Perot on Larry King Live 296
Photos Woodrow Wilson and the Versailles Treaty 301
The White House 9 Harry S. Truman taking oath after
The Oval Office 15 President Roosevelt’s death 304
President Barack Obama 24 Cartoon: His Accidency 314
John Adams 28 John Tyler 315
Air Force One 30 Martin Van Buren 316

viii
 ★
List of Illustrations ★ ix

Gerald R. Ford being sworn in as Theodore Roosevelt and Taft 354

vice president, 1973 326 Newspaper headline: “McKinley Shot Down” 356
Constitution of the United States 340 Four Freedoms speech 359
Cartoon: Jefferson Being Robbed by President Johnson signing
King George III and Napoleon, 1809 342 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 362
Cartoon: King Andrew I 343 Gerald R. Ford and Nelson Rockefeller 363
Cartoon: A Hard Road to Hoe 344 Spiro Agnew 365
Cartoon: Keep the Ball Rolling 345 Nixon’s letter of resignation 367
Memorial armband 346 Richard Nixon’s resignation speech 368
Buchanan’s inauguration 347 George W. Bush giving speech on 9/11 371
Broadside: “Union is Dissolved” 348 George W. Bush giving State of the Union
Lincoln’s second inaugural address 351 address 375
 R EADER ’ S G UIDE

The list that follows is provided as an aid to readers in locating articles on related topics. The Reader’s
Guide arranges all of the A–Z entries in the Guide according to 11 key concepts of the curriculum in
American Government: Administrations, Presidential; Amendments; Elections and the Electoral
Process; Executive Branch; Federalism and Politics; Political Parties; Presidential Benefits and Perks;
Presidential Duties and Responsibilities; Principles of Government; The Constitution; and Vice
Presidents and the Vice Presidency. Some articles appear in more than one category.

Administrations, Presidential Roosevelt, Franklin D., Administration of (1933–1945)

Adams, John, Administration of (1797–1801). Roosevelt, Theodore, Administration of (1901–1909)
Adams, John Quincy, Administration of (1825–1829) Taft, William H., Administration of (1909–1913)
Arthur, Chester A., Administration of (1881–1885) Taylor, Zachary, Administration of (1849–1850)
Buchanan, James, Administration of (1857–1861) Truman, Harry S., Administration of (1945–1953)
Bush, George H.W., Administration of (1989–1993) Tyler, John, Administration of (1841–1845)
Bush, George W., Administration of (2001–2009) Van Buren, Martin, Administration of (1837–1841)
Carter, Jimmy, Administration of (1977–1981) Washington, George, Administration of (1789–1797)
Cleveland, Grover, Administrations of (1885–1889, Wilson, Woodrow, Administration of (1913–1921)
1893–1897)
Clinton, William J., Administration of (1993–2001) Amendments
Coolidge, Calvin, Administration of (1923–1929) Twelfth Amendment (1804)
Eisenhower, Dwight D., Administration of (1953–1961) Twentieth Amendment (1933)
Fillmore, Millard, Administration of (1850–1853) Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967)
Ford, Gerald R., Administration of (1974–1977) Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964)
Garfield, James A., Administration of (1881) Twenty-second Amendment (1951)
Grant, Ulysses S., Administration of (1869–1877) Twenty-third Amendment (1961)
Harding, Warren, Administration of (1921–1923)
Harrison, Benjamin, Administration of (1889–1893) Elections and the Electoral Process
Harrison, William Henry, Administration of (1841) Bush v. Gore (2000)
Hayes, Rutherford B., Administration of (1877–1881) Conventions, Presidential Nominating
Hoover, Herbert, Administration of (1929–1933) Democratic Party (1828– )
Jackson, Andrew, Administration of (1829–1837) Election of 2008
Jefferson, Thomas, Administration of (1801–1809) Elections, Presidential
Johnson, Andrew, Administration of (1865–1869) Electoral College
Johnson, Lyndon B., Administration of (1963–1969) Federalist Party (1792–1816)
Kennedy, John F., Administration of (1961–1963) First Lady
Lincoln, Abraham, Administration of (1861–1865) PACs (Political Action Committees)
Madison, James, Administration of (1809–1817) Political Parties and the President
McKinley, William, Administration of (1897–1901) Presidency and the Media
Monroe, James, Administration of (1817–1825) Presidency, Qualifications for
Nixon, Richard M., Administration of (1969–1974) Presidential Appearances and Public Appeals
Pierce, Franklin, Administration of (1853–1857) Presidential Campaigns
Polk, James, Administration of (1845–1849) Presidential Debates
Reagan, Ronald, Administration of (1981–1989) Presidential Primaries

x
 ★
Reader’s Guide ★ xi

Public Opinion and the Presidency Line-Item Veto

Republican Party (1854– ) Pocket Veto
Third Parties and Presidential Elections Presidency and Congress
The Transition Period Presidency and the Bureaucracy
Twelfth Amendment (1804) Presidency and the Supreme Court
Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) Veto Power
Twenty-second Amendment (1951) Vice Presidency
Vice Presidency
Watergate Scandal Political Parties
Whig Party (1834–1856) Democratic Party (1828– )
Federalist Party (1792–1816)
Executive Branch Political Parties and the President
Cabinet Public Opinion and the Presidency
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Republican Party (1854– )
Department of Commerce Third Parties and Presidential Elections
Department of Defense (DOD) Whig Party (1834–1856)
Department of Education
Department of Energy (DOE) Presidential Benefits and Perks
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Air Force One
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Presidential Salaries and Benefits
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Secret Service
Department of Justice White House
Department of Labor
Department of State Presidential Duties and Responsibilities
Department of the Interior Chief Diplomat
Department of the Treasury Chief Economist
Department of Transportation (DOT) Chief Executive
Department of Veterans Affairs Chief of State
Executive Departments Commander in Chief
First Lady Constitution of the United States
Government Agencies and Corporations Emergency Powers
National Security Council Executive Agreements
Office of Management and Budget Executive Orders
Presidency and the Bureaucracy Foreign Policy and the Presidency
Presidential Commissions Inaugural Address
Secret Service Legislative Leader
Separation of Powers Oath of Office
The Transition Period Presidential Pardons
White House State of the Union Address
The Treaty Power
Federalism and Politics War Powers Resolution
Civil Service System
Constitution of the United States Principles of Government
Constitutional Convention and the Presidency Constitution of the United States
Conventions, Presidential Nominating Constitutional Convention and the Presidency
Elections, Presidential Elections, Presidential
Federalism Electoral College
Federalist Party (1792–1816) Federalism
Impeachment, Presidential Impeachment, Presidential
Legislative Leader Impoundment Powers
★ xii ★ Reader’s Guide

Pocket Veto Twentieth Amendment (1933)

Presidency and Congress Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967)
Presidency and the Bureaucracy Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964)
Presidency and the Supreme Court Twenty-second Amendment (1951)
Presidency, Qualifications for Twenty-third Amendment (1961)
Separation of Powers Veto Power
Watergate Scandal
Vice Presidents and the Vice Presidency
The Constitution Assassinations and Assassination Attempts
Constitution of the United States Gore, Al (1948– )
Constitutional Convention and the Presidency National Security Council
Elections, Presidential Presidential Disability
Electoral College Presidential Succession
Impeachment, Presidential Twelfth Amendment (1804)
Separation of Powers Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967)
The Treaty Power Vice Presidency
Twelfth Amendment (1804) Vice Presidential Vacancies
 A BOUT THE A DVISOR Y E DITOR

Bruce J. Schulman is The William E. Huntington professor of History at Boston

University, a position he has held since 2007. Dr. Schulman has also served as the
Director of the American and New England Studies Program at Boston University.
Prior to moving to Boston University, Dr. Schulman was associate professor of
History at the University of California, Los Angeles. Dr. Schulman received his Ph.D.
and M.A. from Stanford University; he received his B.A., Summa Cum Laude with
Distinction, in history from Yale University.

Since the 1980s, Dr. Schulman has been teaching and writing about the political
face of the United States. He has taken an active role in education at the high school
level as well as serving as the Principal Investigator for the Teaching American His-
tory Grant program with the Boston Public Schools. He also worked with the History
Alive program, a curriculum-based interactive instructional program. In addition, Dr.
Schulman served as director of The History Project in California, a joint effort of the
University of California and the California State Department of Education to improve
history education in the public primary and secondary schools.

Dr. Schulman is the author of several award-winning and notable books that com-
bine his interest in history and politics. Among them are: From Cotton Belt
to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South,
1938–1980; Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism; The Seventies: The Great
Shift in American Culture, Politics, and Society; and Rightward Bound: Making Amer-
ica Conservative in the 1970s (co-edited with Julian Zelizer). Dr. Schulman’s published
books and numerous essays have examined and scrutinized the fabric of America’s po-
litical and socioeconomic life and its direct impact on today’s citizens.

xiii
 P REFACE

As British Prime Minister Winston Churchill dency—the ways in which the office has changed
once remarked, “It has been said that democ- over the past two-and-a-half centuries as well as its
racy is the worst form of government except for current status, unlocking the mysteries surround-
all those others that have been tried.” In CQ ing such contemporary issues as campaign finance
Press’s new series, Student’s Guides to the U.S. reform, the qualifications for the nation’s highest
Government, librarians, educators, students, and office, and the separation of powers. Each of the
other researchers will find essential resources three parts of the Student’s Guide to the Presi-
for understanding the strange wonder, alter- dency takes a unique approach to enhancing users’
nately inspiring and frustrating, that is Ameri- understanding of the national executive branch.
can democracy. Part One features three essays, each of which
In the Student’s Guide to the Presidency, the addresses a provocative issue or question about
third volume in the Student’s Guides series, both America’s highest office: “The Executive Branch:
young and experienced researchers, especially stu- Behind the Scenes Since 1789”; “Power Trip?
dents and teachers, will find all they need to know How Presidents Have Increased the Power of
about America’s chief executive—the constitutional the Office”; and “Is the U.S. President the Most
provisions and legal procedures, the pivotal cam- Powerful Leader in the World?”
paigns and the outrageous scandals, the key play- Part Two features more than 125 A–Z entries
ers and the watershed policy changes—the pure spanning the administration of John Adams—the
pageantry of American presidential politics. The nation’s second president and first vice president,
office is part royalty—the nation’s ceremonial head the latter position described by him as “the most
of state as well as its head of government—and part insignificant office that ever the invention of man
democracy—the only office, along with the vice contrived or his imagination conceived”—to the ad-
presidency, elected by all of the people, this most ministration of Woodrow Wilson. Entries address
dynamic and most scrutinized branch of the federal the major Cabinet posts; executive departments;
government has always been a bundle of contra- the instruments of presidential power, the ways
dictions. As the presidency grew from a relatively that members of the executive branch take office
weak office with almost no staff and few preroga- and what sort of Americans have occupied the
tives into the office held by the unchallenged White House; the relationship between the presi-
leader of the government’s strongest branch, its dency and other institutions, including the Con-
inhabitants have become sources of fascination gress, the Supreme Court, the political parties,
and controversy. One president, Lyndon B. John- the states, and the federal bureaucracy; as well
son (1963–1969), barely exaggerated when he as the historic election in 2008 of America’s first
suggested that, “being president is like being a African American president, Barack Obama.
jackass in a hailstorm. There’s nothing to do but Special features within Part Two abound:
to stand there and take it.” Although critics have “Point/Counterpoint” highlights opposing views
seen danger in the concentration of power in the on the same issue using primary evidence and
White House, partisans of freedom the world over concludes with a thought-provoking “Document-
have also hailed the office as a beacon of hope, a Based Question.” “Spotlight” focuses on unique
symbol of democratic values, an institution that situations and events. “Decision Makers” takes
makes even the most powerful leader subject to a closer look at notable individuals, and “Justice
the aspirations and values of the people. for All” examines important moments in the long
The Student’s Guide to the Presidency unravels journey to extend the fundamental rights of citi-
the historical development of the American presi- zens to all Americans.

xiv
 ★
Preface ★ xv

Part Three contains a “Primary Source of useful, often hard-to-find facts and present
Library” of key documents, including inaugural them in the context of the political environment
addresses and constitutional amendments involving for easy use in research projects, answering
the election of the president and presidential document-based questions, and writing essays
succession; photos; and political cartoons that are or reports.
essential to understanding the history of the The Student’s Guides offer valuable tools for
American Presidency. These documents comple- civics education and for the study of American
ment the information highlighted in both the politics and government. They introduce young
essays in Part One and the A–Z entries in Part people to the institutions, procedures, and rules
Two. Part Three also includes guidelines for us- that form the foundations of American govern-
ing the Primary Source Library and for general ment. They assemble for students and teachers
research. The guidelines offer direction on Re- the essential material for understanding the
searching with Primary and Secondary Sources, workings of American politics and the nature of
Developing Research Questions, Identifying political participation in the United States. The
Sources of Information, Planning and Organiz- Guides explain the roots and development of
ing research for use in a paper or report, Doc- representative democracy, the system of federal-
umenting Sources for the Bibliography, and ism, the separation of powers, and the specific
Citing Sources. roles of legislators, executives, and judges in the
Other helpful tools include a List of Illustra- American system of governance. The Guides
tions, a Reader’s Guide that arranges material provide immediate access to the details about
thematically according to the key concepts of the changing nature of political participation by
the American Government curriculum, and a ordinary Americans and the essential role of
timeline of Historical Milestones of the U.S. citizens in a representative democracy.
Presidency. The Guide concludes with a Glos- At the heart of the Student’s Guides to the
sary of political and elections terminology, a U.S. Government is the conviction that the con-
Selected Bibliography, and an Index. tinued success of the American experiment in
An eye-catching, user-friendly design enhances self-government and the survival of democratic
the text. Throughout, numerous charts, graphs, ideals depend on a knowledgeable and engaged
tables, maps, cross-references, sources for fur- citizenry—on educating the next generation of
ther reading, and images illustrate concepts. American citizens. Understanding American
government and history is essential to that cru-
The Student’s Guides to the cial education process, for freedom depends on
U.S. Government Series knowing how our system of governance evolved
Additional titles in the Student’s Guides to the and how we are governed.
U.S. Government series include the Student’s By learning the rudiments of American
Guide to Elections, the Student’s Guide to Con- government—the policies, procedures, and
gress, and the Student’s Guide to the Supreme processes that built the modern United States—
Court. Collectively, these titles will offer indis- young people can fulfill the promise of Ameri-
pensable data drawn from CQ Press’s collec- can life. By placing at hand—in comprehensive
tions and presented in a manner accessible to essays, in easily recovered alphabetical format,
secondary level students of American history and in pivotal primary source documents—the
and government. The volumes will place at the essential information needed by student re-
reader’s fingertips essential information about searchers and all educators, the Student’s
the evolution of American politics from the Guides to the U.S. Government offer valuable,
struggles to create the United States govern- authoritative resources for civics and history
ment in the late eighteenth century through the education.
ongoing controversies and dramatic strides of
the early twenty-first century. Bruce J. Schulman, Ph.D., Advisory Editor
For study in American history, the Student’s The William E. Huntington Professor of
Guides to the U.S. Government collect a treasury History, Boston University
 HISTORICAL MILESTONES OF THE U.S.
P R E S I D E N C Y, 1 7 8 8 – 2 0 0 9 : A T I M E L I N E

1788: The United States Constitution is ratified by nine 1854: Anti-slavery supporters gather at Ripon,
of the thirteen states and becomes the law of the Wisconsin, and form the Republican Party.
land. 1856: Democrat Franklin Pierce becomes the only
1789: George Washington wins the first presidential elected president denied renomination by his
election on February 4. party. James Buchanan wins the presidency.
1796: John Adams is elected president. 1860: The new Republican Party elects its first
1800: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tie in the president, Abraham Lincoln.
electoral college; the House of Representatives 1861: Civil War (1861–1865) begins.
selects Jefferson after 36 ballots. 1863: Lincoln, using his power as commander in chief,
1804: The Twelfth Amendment is passed, requiring issues the Emancipation Proclamation.
that electors vote separately for president and 1865: President Lincoln is assassinated six weeks after
vice president. the start of his second term. Andrew Johnson
1808: Jefferson continues Washington’s two-term succeeds to the presidency and comes into
precedent for presidents, declining to run for a conflict with Congressional Radical Republicans
third term; James Madison is elected president. over Reconstruction policy.
1812: James Madison asks Congress to declare war on 1868: Johnson is impeached by the House of
Great Britain. Representatives but is acquitted in the Senate.
1824: Andrew Jackson wins the popular vote but 1870: The Fifteenth Amendment, enfranchising newly
does not gain an electoral vote majority. The freed slaves, is ratified on February 3.
election must be decided by the House of 1876: Democrat Samuel J. Tilden wins the popular vote
Representatives, which elects John Quincy against Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, but
Adams. Republicans challenge the results in three states.
1828: Andrew Jackson is elected president. A special electoral commission chooses Hayes.
1831: The first national party convention is held in 1881: President James A. Garfield is shot by Charles J.
Baltimore. Guiteau in Washington, D.C.; Chester A. Arthur
1832: Andrew Jackson is reelected. succeeds to the presidency.
1836: Vice President Martin Van Buren is elected 1884: Grover Cleveland is elected to the presidency,
president. becoming the first Democrat to win the White
House since before the Civil War.
1837: For the first and only time, the Senate decides
the vice-presidential election, selecting Richard 1888: Benjamin Harrison becomes the third president
M. Johnson. elected without winning the popular vote.
1840: Van Buren looses to Whig William Henry 1892: Grover Cleveland wins a second term as
Harrison. president, becoming the only president to serve
two non-consecutive terms.
1841: William Henry Harrison dies after one month
in office; John Tyler becomes first president to 1898: Spanish-American War; United States acquires
succeed to the office after the death of a sitting Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam.
president. 1901: President William McKinley is shot in Buffalo,
1844: The Democrats nominate the first presidential New York; Theodore Roosevelt succeeds to the
dark-horse candidate, James K. Polk, who wins presidency.
the election. 1904: Theodore Roosevelt is elected president.
1846: Mexican-American War begins. 1908: William H. Taft is elected president.
1848: Mexican-American War ends with the Treaty of 1912: Roosevelt leaves the Republican Party and forms
Guadalupe Hidalgo. the Progressive—or Bull Moose—Party. With

xvi
 ★
Historical Milestones of the U.S. Presidency ★ xvii

Republican supporters split between incumbent 1964: The Twenty-fourth Amendment is ratified,
Taft and Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson is elected abolishing the poll tax. Lyndon Johnson wins the
president. presidency by the largest landslide in history.
1916: Wilson is reelected with the campaign slogan, 1965: The Voting Rights Act, protecting African
“He kept us out of war.” Americans’ right to vote, is passed.
1917: Woodrow Wilson asks Congress for a declaration 1967: The Twenty-fifth Amendment is passed, providing
of war against Germany to “make the world safe procedures in case the president is ill.
for democracy.” 1968: Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. is
1920: Republican Warren G. Harding elected president; assassinated; Richard Nixon is elected president
first presidential election in which women are in a close contest.
permitted to vote nationwide. 1972: Richard Nixon wins a landslide reelection.
1923: President Harding dies in office. Calvin Coolidge 1973: Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigns because of
becomes president. corruption and Nixon nominates Gerald Ford to
1924: Coolidge elected to the presidency. replace him.
1928: Republican Herbert Hoover is elected president 1974: President Nixon resigns because of the Water-
over Democratic liberal Alfred E. Smith. gate scandal; Ford succeeds to the presidency;
Ford nominates Nelson A. Rockefeller for vice
1929: Stock market crash leads to Great Depression. president.
1932: Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt promises a “new 1976: The first debate between vice-presidential can-
deal” for the American people and wins an didates, Walter F. Mondale and Bob Dole, is
election landslide. televised from Houston, Texas.
1933: Twentieth Amendment is ratified, moving the 1977: Jimmy Carter is inaugurated as the thirty-ninth
beginning of the president’s term of office to president.
January 20 of the year following the election.
1981: Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as the fortieth
1936: Roosevelt is reelected. president; in March, he is wounded in an
1937: Roosevelt proposes the Judiciary Reorganization assassination attempt.
Act of 1937 to increase the number of Supreme 1984: Democratic vice-presidential nominee Geraldine
Court Justices to 15; Congress defeats the bill. Ferraro becomes the first woman on a major
1939: Germany invades Poland; France and Great party ticket, running with presidential nominee
Britain declare war on Germany. Walter Mondale.
1940: President Roosevelt breaks the two-term 1988: Republican George H.W. Bush becomes the first
precedent and is elected to a third term. sitting vice president to be elected president
since 1836.
1941: Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; President
Roosevelt asks Congress to declare war on 1991: Persian Gulf War
Japan. United States enters World War II. 1992: Bush loses reelection due at least in part to
1944: President Roosevelt is elected to an
H. Ross Perot, a billionaire who mounts the
unprecedented fourth term. strongest ever individual campaign, which splits
the Republican vote; Democrat Bill Clinton is
1945: Roosevelt dies in office on April 12 and Harry S. elected president with 43 percent of the popular
Truman becomes president; World War II ends. vote.
1948: President Truman defeats Thomas E. Dewey. 1994: The Republican Party wins control of Congress.
1951: The Twenty-second Amendment, setting a two- 1996 President Clinton is easily elected to a second
term limit on the presidency, is ratified. term.
1960: The first presidential debate between John F. 1998: A sex scandal threatens the Clinton presidency,
Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon is televised the House of Representatives votes for
from Chicago; Kennedy wins a close election in impeachment.
November. 1999: The Senate acquits Clinton of all charges, having
1961: The Twenty-third Amendment is ratified, giving failed to get the two-thirds majority needed for
residents of Washington, D.C., the right to vote conviction.
in presidential elections. 2000: The Supreme Court settles disputed presidential
1963: President Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, election between Democrat Al Gore, who wins
Texas; Lyndon B. Johnson succeeds to the the popular vote, and Republican George W.
presidency. Bush, giving the election to Bush.
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