Optoelectronics

Arkady Major
ECE 4580, Lecture 10

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 Previous Highlights
LEDs
• Semiconductors can be intrinsic (not doped) or p-type and n-
type conductive (doped).
• Semiconducting materials can be grouped into III-V and II-VI
groups. Depending on composition, we can change their
bandgap energy and therefore “engineer” optical properties of
these materials.
• Semiconductors can have direct (efficient) or indirect (inefficient)
bandgap transitions.
• Forward biased pn-junction stimulates electron-hole
recombination and can act as a luminescent light source: LED.
• The efficiency of the LEDs can be improved using
heterojunctions and light extraction can by enhanced by plastic
encapsulation.

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 Outline

• Laser principles
• Light amplification

• Laser oscillation

• 2-, 3-, 4-level systems

• Threshold conditions

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 Interaction of Photons with Atoms
Three fundamental processes

E2 E2 E2

h = E2 - E1 h = E2 - E1 h = E2 - E1 h = E2 - E1

E1 E1 E1

Absorption Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

Stimulated or induced Random phase and The same phase,

process of absorption direction frequency, polarization
and direction as the
incident light, i.e. we can
get light amplification

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 Interaction of Photons with Atoms
Einstein’s coefficients
Einstein’s coefficients are related to the probabilities of the
E2 N2 shown processes. Let’s consider a system in thermal
equilibrium with absorption and spontaneous emission only:
B12 A21 dN 2 N 2 B12
 N1B12  ( )  N 2 A21  0 and   ( )
dt N1 A21
E1 N1
Therefore, from our calculations:  ( )  exp(h / kBT )

Boltzmann distribution But we also know (experimentally) that blackbody

radiation spectrum:

~ e h / k BT
And this hard ~ 2
evidence does not
agree with our two
process model!
 E  E1  8h 3
   
N2
 exp   2  1
N1  k BT  c 3 e hv / k BT  15
 Interaction of Photons with Atoms
Einstein’s coefficients
E2 N2 Let’s also include stimulated emission:

dN 2
 N1 B12  ( )  N 2 A21  N 2 B21 ( )  0
B12 A21 B21 dt
N 2 A21 A 1
 ( )   21  hv/ kT
E1 N1 N1B12  N 2 B21 B21 (e  1)( B12 / B21)

8h 3
   
When we compare this expression 1

with the blackbody radiation formula: c3 e hv / k BT  1
A21 8h 3
B12  B21 and 
B21 c3

Since A21 describes the transition rate from level 2 to lower level 1:
dN 2 1 (τ is fluorescence
t /
  N 2 A21 and N 2 (t )  N 2 (t0 ) e where A21  lifetime, easy to
dt  measure) 6
 Interaction of Photons with Atoms
Examples
1) Estimate the relative population of two energy levels such that a transition
from the higher to the lower will result in visible radiation at 550 nm at room
temperature (T=300K).
1.24
E2  E1  3.6 1019 J  2.25 eV (or ) and using Boltzmann
0.55 m distribution

N2  E2  E1   3.6 1019  87

 exp     exp    23
  e  1037
N1  k BT   1.38 10  300 

2) Evaluate the ratio of the rate of spontaneous emission to the rate of

stimulated emission for a tungsten filament lamp operating at a temperature
of 2000K with an average light frequency of 5 x 1014 Hz (i.e. λ = 600 nm).

A21  6.63 1034  5 1014 

R e hv / k BT
 1  exp    1  1.5  10 5

 ( ) B21  1.38  10  23
 2000 

Then how can we get light amplification? 7

 Interaction of Photons with Atoms
Population inversion

I Considering only absorption and stimulated emission:

dI
  N1 B12 I  N 2 B21I
dt
For dI/dt to be positive  N1B12 I  N 2 B21I  0

Since B12  B21

Em
BI ( N 2  N1 )  0 or

E3 N 2  N1  0
E2 This condition is called population
inversion. As we already saw, it is
E1
very difficult to create it in most
materials under normal conditions.
Occupation P(Em)
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 Interaction of Photons with Atoms
Population inversion
Most materials have interatomic spacing of a few angstroms and hence atom
densities of ~3 x 1022 atom/cm3

E2 N2 Let’s say the energy difference is 2 eV. Then it

would require:
~1.5 x 1022 1.6 1019  2 1.5 1022  5 kJ / cm3
atom/cm3
If the laser material had a relaxation time of 1 ms,
E1 N1 then the required power would be:

5 103 / 1103  5 MW / cm3

This is a high enough power density to melt or vaporize most of the materials.

Is it possible to create population inversion in a 2-level system?

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 2-Level Atomic System
Population inversion
dN 2
E2 N2  N1 B12  ( )  N 2 A21  N 2 B21 ( )
dt
dN1
B12 A21 B21  N 2 B21 ( )  N 2 A21  N1B12 ( )
dt
E1 N1 NT  N1  N 2 and Ninv  N 2  N1

Conclusion: We have to
create “artificial” population
inversion.

We need more levels!!!

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Pedrotti et. al., Introduction to optics
 3- and 4-Level Systems
Population inversion

3-level system 4-level system

fast relaxation

metastable
level

laser
laser

pump pump
fast
relaxation

Population inversion is harder to achieve in a 3-level system

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 Pump and Amplification
Population inversion is created by a process of “pumping”. Atoms and
molecules can be pumped (excited) into higher energy levels in many ways:

• Optical (Ruby laser, dye laser, Nd:YAG laser)

• Electrons (gas lasers: He-Ne, CO2)
• Chemical (Star Wars lasers, chemical oxygen iodine laser)
• Electrical (semiconductor lasers)

So far we have talked only about light amplification. What about light generation?

Pump
We need a feedback to turn the amplifier into an oscillator.
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 Laser Oscillation
Cavity
To achieve Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation we
need to form a positive feedback for the system, i.e. laser is a light
generator. Usually this is accomplished with two mirrors forming a cavity.

100 % 90 %
100 %

Pump
Now we have a laser!
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Laser Processes in Life

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Prof. J. Watson, U. of Aberdeen
Laser Processes in Life

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Anthony Siegman “Lasers”
 Types of Lasers
Solid state Gas
Background
crystal (host)
matrix

Cr in Al2O3 (ruby) He-Ne, CO2, Ar, N2 Window

Nd in Y3Al5O12 (YAG) Closed tube Gas pressure 1/100 atm

Dye Semiconductor

Window

Dye molecules in a solvent 16

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 Threshold Conditions
Small signal gain
dI ( x)
I If we have population inversion, then  I ( x) and
dx
I  I 0 exp(x) where
B21hn
  ( N 2  N1 ) is a small signal gain coefficient
c
Population inversion is a necessary but not sufficient condition for oscillation.
The laser gain must also overcome passive cavity losses to reach threshold.

α
G – roundtrip gain
γ G  R1R2e2(  ) L R – reflectivity of mirror
α – effective loss coefficient
L γ – effective gain coefficient
R1 R2

1 1
At threshold Gth  1 and  th    ln (threshold small signal
2 L R1R2 gain coefficient)
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 Threshold Conditions
Phase
Steady-state laser oscillation also requires that the phase shift imparted to a
light wave after one cavity roundtrip must be a multiple of 2π.

α
G – roundtrip gain
γ G  R1R2e 2 (  ) L
R – reflectivity of mirror
α – effective loss coefficient
R1 L R2 γ – effective gain coefficient

E1  E0
2 (  ) L i 2 kL
To oscillate E1 = E2 (wave repeats itself) and
E2  E0 R1R2e e this requires exp(i2kL) = 1 or 2kL = 2πq, where
q is an integer number. After rearranging we
1 can get allowed longitudinal frequency modes ν
at threshold for oscillation and amplification:

c c
 q and  2  1 
2L 2L 18
 Threshold Conditions
Line shape
Ideal case: line transition Real case: finite width

E2 I E2 I

Δν

E1 E1
ν0 ν ν0 ν

B21h 0 n
The effects of broadening can be approximated by  th  ( N 2  N1 )
c
 th c 8 02 thn 2
Solving for (N2-N1)th we get: N th  
B21h 0 n c2
A21
Here we used expressions for A21 and in a gain medium.
B21 19
 Threshold Conditions
Example
Calculate the value of threshold population inversion required to give a gain
coefficient of 1 m-1 in a Nd:YAG laser (4-level system). Use the following data:
spontaneous lifetime τ = 230 μs; wavelength λ = 1064 nm (2.83 x 1014 Hz);
refractive index n = 1.82; linewidth Δν = 1.8 x 1011 Hz.

 th c 8 02 thn 2

N th  
B21h 0 n c2

8 (2.83 1014 ) 2 (1)(230 10 6 )(1.8 1011)(1.82) 2

N th 
(3 108 ) 2
 3.110 21 m 3  3.11015 cm 3

Similar parameter for a Ruby laser (3-level system) is ~1019 cm-3

This clearly shows the benefit of a 4-level laser system!

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 Output Power
What happens above threshold?
Any increase in pump power above threshold results in an increase in laser
output power
Pout
Ninv

Nth

Pth Pump power

Above threshold the It is no longer exponential,

laser output power is Pout   Pin  Pth  because of gain saturation.
given by: (η is a constant) 21
 Summary
• Interaction of photons with matter can be described by 3
processes: absorption, spontaneous emission and
stimulated emission.
• Population inversion is a situation when a higher energy
level has larger population than a lower lying level.
• Population inversion can result in light amplification.
• Population inversion is impossible to achieve in a two-
level system. Three- or four-level systems are required.
• Laser oscillation requires positive feedback.
• Two main conditions for laser oscillation exist: gain and
phase.
• Above threshold output power increases linearly and
threshold population inversion is clamped at a constant
value.
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Next Lecture

Lecture 11

First laser
Cavity modes
Typical lasers
Diode pumping
Modes of operation

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