Chapter 24

Gauss’s Law
Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ Law can be used as an alternative procedure for calculating electric

fields.
It is convenient for calculating the electric field of highly symmetric charge
distributions.
Gauss’ Law is important in understanding and verifying the properties of
conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.

Introduction
Electric Flux

Electric flux is the product of the

magnitude of the electric field and the
surface area, A, perpendicular to the
field.
ΦE = EA
Units: N · m2 / C

Section 24.1
Electric Flux, General Area

The electric flux is proportional to the

number of electric field lines
penetrating some surface.
The field lines may make some angle θ
with the perpendicular to the surface.
Then ΦE = EA cos θ

Section 24.1
Electric Flux, Interpreting the Equation

The flux is a maximum when the surface is perpendicular to the field.

§ θ = 0°
The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field.
§ θ = 90°
If the field varies over the surface, Φ = EA cos θ is valid for only a small element
of the area.

Section 24.1
Electric Flux, General

In the more general case, look at a

small area element.
 
DF E = Ei DAi cos θi = Ei × DA i
In general, this becomes

F E = lim
DAi ®0
åE i× DAi
 
FE = ò
surface
E × dA

§ The surface integral means the

integral must be evaluated over the
surface in question.
In general, the value of the flux will
depend both on the field pattern and on
the surface.

Section 24.1
Electric Flux, Closed Surface

Assume a closed surface


The vectors DA i point in different
directions.
§ At each point, they are
perpendicular to the surface.
§ By convention, they point outward.

Section 24.1
Flux Through Closed Surface, cont.

At (1), the field lines are crossing the surface from the inside to the outside; θ <
90o, Φ is positive.
At (2), the field lines graze surface; θ = 90o, Φ = 0
At (3), the field lines are crossing the surface from the outside to the inside;180o
> θ > 90o, Φ is negative.

Section 24.1
 closed surface in Figure 24.4. The vectors ! A i point in different
Flux
various Through
surface Closed
elements, but at Surface,
each pointfinal
they are normal to the
onvention, always point outward. At the element labeled !, the field
the surface from the inside to the outside and " # 90°; hence, the
The net
A1 through flux
this throughis the
element surface
positive. Foriselement
proportional
", theto the netlines
field number of lines leaving
the surface.
(perpendicular to the vector ! A 2); thus, " % 90° and the flux is zero.
h as #, where
§ Thisthenetfield linesof
number are crossing
lines is thethe surface
number offrom
lines outside
leavingto the surface minus the
' 90° and number
the flux entering
is negativethebecause
surface.cos " is negative. The net flux
ace is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the surface,
If En is the
mber means
component of the field perpendicular to the surface, then
the number leaving the surface minus the number entering the
es are leaving than entering, the net flux is positive. If more lines are
ving, the net flux is negative. Using the symbol ! to represent an
§ The
sed surface, weintegral is over
can write the neta closed
flux $Esurface.
through a closed surface as

$E % " E& d A % " E n dA (24.4)

nts the component of the electric field normal to the surface. If the
the surface at each point and constant in magnitude, the calculation
as it was in Example 24.1. Example 24.2 also illustrates this point.

iz 24.1 Section 24.1

Suppose the radius of the sphere in Example 24.1 is
Example 24.2: Flux Through a Cube

The field lines pass through two

surfaces perpendicularly and are
parallel to the other four surfaces.
For face 1, Φ = -El 2
For face 2, Φ = El 2
For the other sides, Φ = 0
Therefore, Φtotal = 0

Section 24.1
 above the Earth’s surface on a day when a thunderstorm is
brewing.
4.1 Problem A Ecar
(a) 24.3: with
= EA e
cos a =rectangular
3.50 × 10 3 0.size
350 ×ofja
6.00
0.700 cosm0°by
is traveling along a roadway sloping downward at 10.0°.
= 3.00 f
858 Nm
⋅ m2 C

Determine the electric flux through the bottom of the car.

(b) = 90.0° E =0
3. A 40.0-cm-diameter loop is rotated in a uniform electric field
until the position of maximum electric flux is found.2 The
e
= 3.50 × 10
(c) in this Eposition
flux ja
3
0.350 × 0.700
is measured cos 5.20
to be f
40.0° =
! 657 N ⋅"m
105 N C
m2/C.
What is the magnitude of the electric field?
E = EAa
4.24. Consider cos = 2.00
closed e× 10 4 N Cbox
triangular 18.0restingje
m 2 cos 10.0° = 355
within j
kN ⋅ m 2 C
a horizon-
tal electric field of magnitude E # 7.80 ! 104 N/C as
4.3 shownE = in
EA Figure
cos P24.4. Calculate
A = π the
r a
2 electric2 flux through
= π 0.200 = 0.126 m 2 f
(a) the vertical rectangular surface, (b) the slanted
surface, and
5.20 × 10 5
=Ea
(c)
0.126 f
thecos
entire
0° surface of× the
E = 4.14 10 6 box.
N C = 4.14 MN C

30 cm

Section 24.1 E
 3. A 40.0-cm-diameter loop is rotated in a uniform electric field
Problem 24.4:
until the position of maximum electric flux is found. The 7. A pyram
flux in this position is measured to be 5.20 ! 105 N " m2/C. side, and
What is the magnitude of the electric field? field of
4. Consider a closed triangular box resting within a horizon- the pyra
tal electric field of magnitude E # 7.80 ! 104 N/C as 8. A cone
shown in Figure P24.4. Calculate the electric flux through horizon
(a) the vertical rectangular surface, (b) the slanted the cone
surface, and (c) the entire surface of the box. flux that

30 cm
E

60°
10 cm

Figure P24.4

5. A uniform electric field aî $ bĵ intersects a surface of area Section 24

A. What is the flux through this area if the surface lies 9. The fol
Section 24.1
(a) in the yz plane? (b) in the xz plane? (c) in the xy plane? 5.00 'C
 Problem 24.4:

Chapter 24 31
P24.4 (a) a
A ′ = 10.0 cm 30.0 cm fa f 30.0 cm
2 2
A ′ = 300 cm = 0.030 0 m
E, A′ = EA ′ cos

E, A′ e jb
= 7.80 × 10 4 0.030 0 cos 180° g 10.0 cm 60.0Þ

E, A′ = −2.34 kN ⋅ m 2 C

(b) E, A e ja f
= EA cos = 7.80 × 10 4 A cos 60.0°
FIG. P24.4

A = a30.0 cmfa wf = a30.0 cmfG

F 10.0 cm IJ = 600 cm = 0.060 0 m2 2
H cos 60.0° K
E, A= e7.80 × 10 jb0.060 0g cos 60.0° = +2.34 kN ⋅ m C
4 2

(c) The bottom and the two triangular sides all lie parallel to E, so E = 0 for each of these. Thus,

E, total = −2.34 kN ⋅ m 2 C + 2.34 kN ⋅ m 2 C + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 .

P24.5 (a) E e j
= E ⋅ A = a i + b j ⋅ A i = aA

(b) E e j
= a i + b j ⋅ A j = bA Section 24.1
Karl Friedrich Gauss

1777 – 1855
Made contributions in
§ Electromagnetism
§ Number theory
§ Statistics
§ Non-Euclidean geometry
§ Cometary orbital mechanics
§ A founder of the German Magnetic
Union
§ Studies the Earth’s magnetic
field

Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law, Introduction

Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship between the net electric
flux through a closed surface and the charge enclosed by the surface.
§ The closed surface is often called a gaussian surface.
Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of electric fields.

Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – General

A positive point charge, q, is located at

the center of a sphere of radius r.
The magnitude of the electric field
everywhere on the surface of the
sphere is
E = keq / r2

Section 24.2
the field lines are directed radially outward and hence are perpendicu- q E
ce at every point on the surface. That is, at each surface point, E is par-
Gauss’s Law – General, cont.
ctor " A i representing a local element of area "Ai surrounding the
Therefore,
Figure 24.6 A spherical gaussian
E$" Ai ! E " Ai surface of radius r surrounding a
The field lines are directed radially outward and are perpendicular to the surface
point charge q. When the charge is
tion 24.4 we find point.
at every that the net flux through the gaussian surface is at the center of the sphere, the

#E ! ! E$ d A ! ! E dA ! E ! dA
electric field is everywhere normal
to the surface and constant in
magnitude.
This will be the net flux through the gaussian surface, the sphere of radius r.
We know E = keq/r2 and Asphere = 4πr2,

q
F E = 4πkeq =
εo

Section 24.2
Gaussian Surface, Example

Closed surfaces of various shapes can

surround the charge.
§ Only S1 is spherical
Verifies the net flux through any closed
surface surrounding a point charge q is
given by q/eo and is independent of the
shape of the surface.

Section 24.2
Gaussian Surface, Example 2

The charge is outside the closed

surface with an arbitrary shape.
Any field line entering the surface
leaves at another point.
Verifies the electric flux through a
closed surface that surrounds no
charge is zero.

Section 24.2
 of lines through the nonspherical surfaces S 2 and S 3. Therefore, we
t the Gauss’s
net flux through
Lawany closed surface
– General, surrounding a point charge
notes
y q/!0 and is independent of the shape of that surface.
sider a point charge located outside a closed surface of arbitrary shape, as
ure 24.8. As you can see from this construction, any electric field line that
The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge, q, is given
urface leaves the surface at another point. The number of electric field
by q/εo and
ng the surface
is independent of the shape of that surface.
equals the number leaving the surface. Therefore, we
at theThenet net
electric flux flux
electric through a closed
through surface
a closed that surrounds
surface no
that surrounds no charge is zero.
ero. If we apply this result to Example 24.2, we can easily see that the net
Since
the cube thebecause
is zero electricthere
fieldis due to many
no charge charges
inside the cube.is the vector sum of the electric fields
xtend produced by thetoindividual
these arguments charges,
two generalized cases:the
(1) flux
that through
of many any
pointclosed surface can be
(2) that of a continuous
expressed as distribution of charge. We once again use the
n principle, which states that the electric field due to many charges is
sum of the electric fields produced by the individual charges.
e can express the flux through any closed surface as

" E'd A ! " (E1 ( E2 ( ' ' ')'d A

he total electric field at any point on the surface produced by the vector
he electric fields at that point due to the individual charges. Consider the
arges shown in Figure 24.9. The surface S surrounds only one charge, q 1;
et flux through S is q 1/# 0. The flux through S due to charges q 2 , q 3 , and
is zero because each electric field line that enters S at one point leaves it at

Section 24.2
at is, all the electric field lines that enter S $ at one point leave at
hargeGauss’s Law
q 4 does not – Final to the net flux through any of the
contribute
utside all of the surfaces.
h is a generalization of what we have just described, states that
The mathematical form of Gauss’s law states
ny closed surface is

%E & ! E'd A &

q in
#0
(24.6) Gauss’s law

the net charge inside the surface and E represents the electric
§ qin is the net charge inside the surface.
he surface.

E represents
Gauss’s the electric
law is presented

field at 24.5.
in Section any point
Whenon using
the surface.
Equation ▲ PITFALL PREVE
that although thetotal
§ E is the charge q in isfield
electric the and
net charge
may haveinside the gaussian
contributions from charges
24.1 both
Zero Flux is
the total electric field, which includes
inside and outside of the surface. contributions from charges
 Field
e the surface.
Although Gauss’s law can, in theory, be solved to find E for any charge We see two situation
’s law can be solved for E to determine the electric field due to a
configuration, in practice it is limited to symmetric situations. there is zero flux
continuous distribution of charge. In practice, however, this type of
closed surface — eithe
nly in a limited number of highly symmetric situations. In the next
no charged particles
law to evaluate the electric field for charge distributions that have
the surface or there a
or planar symmetry. If one chooses the gaussian surface surround- particles enclosed, b
tion carefully, the integral in Equation 24.6 can be simplified. charge inside the surf
Section 24.2
For either situation, i
to conclude that the e
Conceptual Example 24.3 Flux Due to a Point Charge

A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe what happens to the total flux through
the surface if

(A) the charge is tripled,

The flux through the surface is tripled because flux is proportional to the amount of charge inside the
surface.

(B) the radius of the sphere is doubled,

The flux does not change because all electric field lines from the charge pass through the sphere,
regardless of its radius.

(C) the surface is changed to a cube,

The flux does not change when the shape of the gaussian surface changes because all electric field lines
from the charge pass through the surface, regardless of its shape.

(D) the charge is moved to another location inside the surface.

The flux does not change when the charge is moved to another location inside that surface because
Gauss’s law refers to the total charge enclosed, regardless of where the charge is located inside the
surface.

Section 24.2
 Figure P24.8
Problem 24.9
ea Section 24.2 Gauss’s Law
756 C HAPTE R 24 • Gauss’s Law
es 9. The following charges are located inside a submarine:
e? 5.00 'C, ( 9.00 'C, 27.0 'C, and ( 84.0 'C. (a) Calculate
the net electric flux through the hull of the submarine.
(b) Is the number of electric field lines leaving the
submarine greater than, equal to, or less than the number
entering it?
32 Gauss’s Law
10. The electric field everywhere on the surface of a thin
Section 24.2 spherical
Gauss’s Law
shell of radius 0.750 m is measured to be
P24.9 (a)
890 N/Cqinand
E = =
b points
+5.00 µC − 9.00radially
µC + 27.0 µtoward
C − 84.0 µC g
the center6 of 2the2
= −6.89 × 10 N ⋅ m C
sphere. (a)
0
What 8 is
.85 the
× 10 −12net
C 2 charge
N ⋅ m 2 within the sphere’s
surface? (b) What can 2 you conclude about the nature and
E = −6.89 MN ⋅ m C
distribution of the charge inside the spherical shell?
(b)
11. FourSince the net electric flux is negative, more lines enter than leave the surface.
closed surfaces, S 1 through S 4, together with the
charges ! 2Q , Q , and !Q are sketched in Figure e 8.99 × 10 9P24.11.
jQ
k eQ 2
P24.10 (a) (TheE =colored: lines are the intersections 8.90 × 10 of
= the surfaces
r2 a0.750f 2 16. In
with the page.) Find the electric flux through −8 each
But Q is negative since E points inward.
Section 24.2 Q = −5.56 × 10 C = − 55.6 nC ab
surface.
 890 N/C and points radially toward the center of the
Problem 24.11
sphere. (a) What is the net charge within the sphere’s
surface? (b) What can you conclude about the nature and
distribution of the charge inside the spherical shell?
11. Four closed surfaces, S 1 through S 4, together with the
charges ! 2Q , Q , and !Q are sketched in Figure P24.11.
(The colored lines are the intersections of the surfaces
with the page.) Find the electric flux through each 16. In the air o
surface. above the g
downward.
100 N/C do
S1 density in th
it positive or
–2Q
S4 S3 17. A point cha
cube of edg
+Q
point charg
metrically ar
–Q
the electric

S2
Figure P24.11

12. (a) A point charge q is located a distance d from an infi-

nite plane. Determine Section 24.2
the electric flux through the
24.10 (a) E=
k eQ
:
with the page.) Find
2
8.90 × 10 =
e8.99electric
the j
× 10 Q flux
Problem 24.11r 2 surface.
a0.750f
2

But Q is negative since E points inward. Q = −5.56 × 10 −8 C = −55.6 nC

S1

(b) The negative charge has a spherically symmetric charge distributio

–2Q
S4 S3

qin +Q
24.11 E =
0
–Q
−2Q + Q Q
Through S1 E = = −
0 0
S2
+Q − Q
Through S 2 E = = 0 Figure P24.11
0

−2Q + Q − Q 12. (a)

2QA point charge q is located a distance
Through S3 E = = −nite plane. Determine the electric flux
0 0
plane due to the point charge. (b) Wha
Through S 4 E = 0
charge q is located a very small distance fr
of a very large square on the line per
the square and going through its center.
24.12 (a) One-half of the total flux createdapproximate
by the charge q goesflux
electric through the the
through plane.
squ
=
1
=
1 q
=
FG IJ
q
point
.
charge. (c) Explain why the ans
E , plane
2
E , total
2Section H K
(a) and (b) are identical.
0 24.2 2 0
13. Calculate the total electric flux through th
 of a cartesian coordinate system. A drill with a radius of
Problem 24.21
1.00 mm is aligned along the z axis, and a hole is drilled in
the sphere. Calculate the electric flux through the hole. 29.
21. A charge of 170 $C is at the center of a cube of edge
80.0 cm. (a) Find the total flux through each face of the
cube. (b) Find the flux through the whole surface of the 30.
cube. (c) What If? Would your answers to parts (a) or
(b) change if the charge were not at the center? Explain.
22. The line ag in Figure P24.22 is a diagonal of a cube. A
point charge q is located on the extension of line ag, very 31.
close to vertex a of the cube. Determine the electric flux
through each of the sides of the cube which meet at the
point a.
32.
d c
q
b
a
Section 24.2
34
Problem 24.21
Gauss’s Law

F k Q IJ eπ r F e8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m C je10.0 × 10 Cj I
9 2 2 −6

P24.20 E , hole = E ⋅ A hole =G

HR K
e 2
j = GG a0.100 mf J
J π e1.00 × 10 −3
j
m
2
2
H 2
K
E, hole = 28.2 N ⋅ m 2 C

qin 170 × 10 −6 C
P24.21 E = = −12 2 2
= 1.92 × 10 7 N ⋅ m 2 C
0 8.85 × 10 C N⋅m

1.92 × 10 7 N ⋅ m 2 C
(a) b g
E one face =
1
6
E =
6
b gE one face = 3.20 MN ⋅ m 2 C

(b) E = 19.2 MN ⋅ m 2 C

(c) The answer to (a) would change because the flux through each face of the cube would
not be equal with an asymmetric charge distribution. The sides of the cube nearer the
charge would have more flux and the ones further away would have less. The answer
to (b) would remain the same, since the overall flux would remain the same.

P24.22 No charge is inside the cube. The net flux through the cube is zero. Positive flux
comes out through the three faces meeting at g. These three faces together fill
solid angle equal to one-eighth of a sphere as seen from q, and together pass

flux
1 q FG IJ
. Each face containing a intercepts equal flux going into the cube:
8 0 H K Section 24.2
Applying Gauss’s Law

To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a gaussian surface over which the
surface integral can be simplified and the electric field determined.
Take advantage of symmetry.
Remember, the gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it does not have to
coincide with a real surface.

Section 24.3
Conditions for a Gaussian Surface

Try to choose a surface that satisfies one or more of these conditions:

§ The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be constant
over the surface.
 
 of E × dA can be expressed as a simple algebraic product
§ The dot product
EdA because E and dA are parallel.
 
§ The dot product is 0 because E and dA are perpendicular.
§ The field is zero over the portion of the surface.
If the charge distribution does not have sufficient symmetry such that a gaussian
surface that satisfies these conditions can be found, Gauss’ law is not useful for
determining the electric field for that charge distribution.

Section 24.3
 the electric field and choose a gaussian surface th
Example 24.4: Field Due to a Spherically some or all Symmetric Charge that
of the conditions Distribution
we have listed
choose a spherical gaussian surface of radius r c
the point charge, as shown in Figure 24.10. The e
ge
Starting with Gauss’s law, calculate the due to a positive point charge is directed radially
o electric field
symmetry and isdue to annormal
therefore isolated point
to the surface at every
charge
point. q. as in condition (2), E is parallel to dA at each
Thus,
point. Therefore, E ! dA " E dA and Gauss’s law gives
e
w
e
%E " ! E!d A " ! E dA "
q
$0
Gaussian
surface
t
l By symmetry, E is constant everywhere on the surface, which r
s satisfies condition (1), so it can be removed from the inte-
dA
n gral. Therefore, +
o
f
s
! E dA " E ! dA " E (4# r 2) "
q
$0
q E

e where we have used the fact that the surface area of a

n sphere is 4# r 2. Now, we solve for the electric field:
d Figure 24.10 (Example 24.4) The point charge q is
y q q
E" 2 " ke 2 center of the spherical gaussian surface, and E is par
4#$0r r
at every point on the surface.
To finalize this problem, note that this is the familiar
electric field due to a point charge that we developed from
Coulomb’s law in Chapter 23.
Section 24.3
What If? What if the charge in Figure 24.10 were not at the
 ng solid sphere24.5:
Example of radius
Fielda Due
has atouniform volume Symmetric
a Spherically (1) and Charge
(2) are Distribution
satisfied. Theref
nsity ! and carries a total positive charge Q (Fig. region r " a gives

An insulating solid sphere of radius a

ate the magnitude of the electric field at a point
has a uniform volume charge density ⍴
# E dA $ E # dA $ E (4
e sphere. Solving for E gives
and carries a total positive charge Q.
Because (A)the chargethe
Calculate distribution
magnitudeis of
spherically
the sym- q in !(43 %r
E$ $
againelectric
select field at a point
a spherical outsidesurface
gaussian the of radius 4 % '0r 2 4%'0r
sphere.
ic with the sphere, as shown in Figure 24.11a. For
, conditions (1) and (2) are satisfied, as they were Because ! $ Q /43 %a 3 by definition a
int charge in Example 24.4. Following the line of this expression for E can be written a
given in Example 24.4, we find that
Qr Q
(2) E$ $ ke
Q 4%'0a 3 a
(1) E $ ke 2 (for r & a)
r Note that this result for E d
his result is identical to the one we obtained for a obtained in part (A). It shows
ge. Therefore, we conclude that, for a uniformly Therefore, the result eliminates t
phere, the field in the region external to the exist at r $ 0 if E varied as 1/r 2 ins
equivalent to that of a point charge located at outside the sphere. That is, if E (
of the sphere. would be infinite at r $ 0, which is p
Section 24.3
he magnitude of the electric field at a point inside What If? Suppose we approach
from inside the sphere and from out
 ication of
ution InGauss’s Lawwe
this case to Various
select aCharge Distributions
spherical 747
gaussian surface
Answer From Equation (1), we see
Spherically
ing radius Symmetric,
r " a, concentric with the cont.
insulating sphere
approaches a value from the outside given
g. 24.11b). Let us denote the volume of this smaller
• Application of Gauss’s Law to Various Charge Distributions 747
! "
ere by V #. To
3 • Application apply Gauss’s
of Gauss’s law Charge
Law to Various Interactive
in thisDistributions
situation, it is747 Q Q
E $ lim k e $ ke
ortant(B)to Find
recognize that the charge
the magnitude q inelectric
of the within the gauss- r :a r2 a
dsurface
(2) are satisfied.V #Therefore,
nr " afield
of at
volume
a point inside the Gauss’s
is less than sphere. law in the
Q. To calculate q in, we
Interactive From the inside, Equation (2) gives us
the factgives
on that q in $ !V #: Interactive

#
(1) and E(2)
(1) and
region
dA
r "(2)
$
a gives
q #
areE satisfied.
in dA
$ !$V #Therefore,
E
are satisfied. Therefore,$(4 %
! r
( 3
% r )
q in
42) $3 Gauss’s
'Gauss’s
0
law in the
law in the
E $ lim k e
r :a ! Q
a3
r $ k "
e
Q
a3
a$

## ##
region r " athe givesmagnitude of the electric field is Thus, the value of the field is the same a
gsymmetry,
for E gives
E dA E dA E (4 r 2) $ q in
$
stant everywhere on the4 spherical $ %
2) $' 0q insurface and
gaussian surface from both directions. A plot of E v
E dA $ E dA
!(3 %r ) 3
$ E (4 % r
q in ! ' 0 conditions Figure 24.12. Note that the magnitude of
ormalEfor
Solving to
$ Ethe givessurface
2 $ at each 2
point
$ —r both
Solving for 4E%gives '0r 4%'0r 3'0 uous, but the derivative of the field magni
q in !(43 %r 3) !
4 E$
e ! $ Q /3 %a 3 by (3 r ) 3' k!er $ 1/4%' 0,
$ 4 3$
4 %definition
' q rin
2 4 and
!
%' % because
2r
pression for E Ecan 0
$ be written 2 $ as 0 2 $ 0 r
r 4 % '0r 4%'0r 3'0 a
Because ! $ Q /43 %a 3 by definition and because ke $ 1/4%' 0,
Because
this !$Q
expression Q
for/43rE%can
a 3 by Q as and because ke $ 1/4%' 0,
be definition
written
E $a $ k
3 can be ewritten 3 r as (for r " a)
this expression 4%' for0 aE a Gaussian
Qr Q r sphere
te (2)
that this Eresult $ for
4%'0Qa r 3 E k e 3 from
$ differs
a Q
r (for one
the r " a)we
(2) E $ $ k r (for r " a)
ed in part (A). 4It%' shows
0 a3 that
e
a 3E : 0 as r : 0. E E = keQ r
ore,Notethe that
result thiseliminates
result for the E differsproblem a that
from the would
one we a3
Gaussian ke
tobtained 0 if Einthat
r $Note part
varied thisas (A).1/rIt2 inside
result
sphere
shows
for E the thatsphere
differs E from
: 0asthe asit does
r one
: 0. we E=
r
eTherefore,
obtained (a) the
the sphere. in Thatresult(A).
part is,eliminates 1/rthe
if EIt( 2shows 2 for problem
that
(b)r "Ea, :that 0 as
the would
fieldr : 0.
exist at r $ 0 the
Therefore, if E varied as 1/r inside thethe sphere as it does
be
ure infinite at r $result
24.11 (Example 0, which
24.5) eliminates
is uniformly
A physically 2
problem
impossible.
charged that
insulating would
outside
exist the sphere.
at r $ 0a if That
E varied is, if E 2
(
as 1/r Q.inside 1/r for r "
thepoints a,
sphere the field
as it does
ere of radius and total charge (a) For outside
Section the a
would
If?
outside be infinite
Suppose
the weat rapproach
sphere. $That0, which
is, if isE physically
the (radial
1/r 2 impossible.
position
for r " a, ! a24.3
r the field
ere, a large spherical gaussian surface is drawn concentric
side
would thebesphere
infiniteand at r from outside.
$ 0, which Do we measure
is physically impossible. the
Spherically Symmetric Distribution, final

Inside the sphere, E varies linearly with r

§ E → 0 as r → 0
The field outside the sphere is equivalent
to that of a point charge located at the
center of the sphere.

Section 24.3
 (A) The calculation for the field outside the shell is identical of conditions (1) and (2) again — application
to that for the solid sphere shown in Example 24.5a. If we law shows that E # 0 in the region r " a. We
construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius r ! a concen- same results using Equation 23.11 and integrati
Example 24.6 The Electric Field Due to a Thin Spherical Shell
tric with the shell (Fig. 24.13b), the charge inside this surface
is Q. Therefore, the field at a point outside the shell is equiv-
charge distribution. This calculation is rather c
Gauss’s law allows us to determine these results
alent to that due to a point charge Q located at the center: simpler way.

Gaussian Gaussian
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total sphere sphere

charge Q distributed uniformly over its +

+
+
E
+
+
+
r
+
+
+

surface. Find the electric field at points +

a
+ +
a
+ + a
r
+

+ + + + + +
+ Ein = 0 + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +

(A) outside and

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 24.13 (Example 24.6) (a) The electric field inside a uniformly charged
Q spherical shell is zero. The field outside is the same as that due to a point charge Q

E # ke (for r ! a) located at the center of the shell. (b) Gaussian surface for r ! a. (c) Gaussian surface
for r " a.
r2
Example 24.7 A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge Distribution

(B) inside
The electric fieldthe shell.
inside the spherical shell is charge
zero.
Find the electric field a distance r from a line of positive
Thislength and constant charge per unit
of infinite
The total charge inside our gaussian sur
Applying Gauss’s law and conditions (1) and (
length $ (Fig. 24.14a). that for the curved surface
ws fromTheGauss’s
electriclawfield
applied
insidetothe
a spherical surface
sphericalSolution
shell of
s r " a concentric with the shell (Fig. 24.13c). requires
Because
The symmetry of the charge distribution
that E beofperpendicular to the line charge and (E # ! E%d A # E ! dA # E A #
q in
#
is zero.
'0
directed outward, as shown in Figure 24.14a and b. To
spherical symmetry of the charge distribution and of the charge distribution, we select a
reflect the symmetry The area of the curved surface is A # 2&r!; there
cylindrical gaussian surface of radius r and length ! that is $!
use the net charge inside the surface is zero — satisfaction
coaxial with the line charge. For the curved part of this E (2&r !) #
'0
surface, E is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to
onditions (1) and (2) again — application the of surface
Gauss’sat each point—satisfaction of conditions $ $
(1) and (2). Furthermore, the flux through the ends of E# # 2k e r
hows that E # 0 in the region r " a. We obtain the is zero because E is parallel to
the gaussian cylinder
2&' 0 r
these surfaces—the first application we have seen of Thus, we see that the electric field due to a
results using Equation 23.11 and integrating over(3). the
condition symmetric charge distribution varies as 1/r, w
We take the surface integral in Gauss’s law over the field external to a spherically symmetric charge
ge distribution. This calculation is rather complicated.
entire gaussian surface. Because of the zero value of E % dA varies as 1/r 2. Equation 24.7 was also derived
for the ends of the cylinder, however, we can restrict our tion of the field of a point charge. (See Pro
s’s law allows us to determine these results in a tomuch
attention only the curved surface of the cylinder. Chapter 23.)

ler way. Section 24.3

 + + a +
r
Example
+ 24.7
+ A Cylindrically
+ Symmetric Charge Distribution
+ + +
+
Find the electric field a+ distance r from
+ +
+
a line of positive charge of infinite
length and constant charge per unit
length λ.
(b) (c)
field inside a uniformly charged
me asSelect
that dueato
cylindrical charge
a point charge Q distribution .
urface for r ! a. (c) Gaussian surface
§ The cylinder has a radius of r and a
length of ℓ.
n E is constant in magnitude and
perpendicular to the surface at every
Thepoint
totaloncharge
the curved
insidepart
ourof gaussian
the surface.
surface is $!.
pplying Gauss’s law and conditions (1) and (2), we find
Use Gauss’s law to find the field.
hat for the curved surface

(E # ! E%dA # E ! dA # E A #
q in
'0
#
$!
'0
he area of the curved surface is A # 2&r!; therefore,
$!
E (2&r !) # Section 24.3
'0
c field inside a uniformly charged
same as that due to a point charge Q
Field
n surface for r !Due to a Line
a. (c) Gaussian of
surface Charge, cont.

ion The end view confirms the field is

perpendicular to the curved surface.
The total charge inside our gaussian surface is $!.
TheGauss’s
Applying field through
law and the ends of
conditions (1)the
and (2), we find
that for the curved
cylinder is 0surface
since the field is parallel to

(E # !
these surfaces.
E%d A # E ! dA # E A #
q in
'0
#
$!
'0
The area of the curved surface is A # 2&r!; therefore,
$!
E (2&r !) #
'0

$ $
E# # 2k e r (24.7)
2&' 0 r
Thus, we see that the electric field due to a cylindrically
symmetric charge distribution varies as 1/r, whereas the
field external to a spherically symmetric charge distribution
varies as 1/r 2. Equation 24.7 was also derived by integra-
tion of the field of a point charge. (See Problem 35 in
Chapter 23.)

Section 24.3
 to the surface integral from this surface. For the
ds of the cylinder, conditions (1) and (2) are satis-
Example 24.8 A Plane of Charge
he flux through each end of the cylinder is EA;
the total flux through the entire gaussian surface is
at through the ends, "E # 2EA.
ting that the total charge inside the surface is
! A, we use Gauss’s law and find that the total flux
h the gaussian surface is

q in !A
"E # 2E A # #
$0 $0
g to
!
E# (24.8)
2$0

cause the distance from each flat end of the cylinder

plane does not appear in Equation 24.8, we conclude
# !/2$0 at any distance from the plane. That is, the
uniform everywhere.

If? Suppose we place two infinite planes of charge

to each other, one positively chargedSection
and 24.3
the other
 and 126 neutrons. Assume the lead nucleus has a volume c
Problem 24.24
208 times that of one proton, and consider a proton to be st
a sphere of radius 1.20 % 10&15 m. fl
24. A solid sphere of radius 40.0 cm has a total positive charge a
of 26.0 $C uniformly distributed throughout its volume. e
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field (a) 0 cm, 35. A
(b) 10.0 cm, (c) 40.0 cm, and (d) 60.0 cm from the center a
of the sphere. c
25. A 10.0-g piece of Styrofoam carries a net charge of th
& 0.700 $C and floats above the center of a large horizon- th
tal sheet of plastic that has a uniform charge density on its e
surface. What is the charge per unit area on the plastic e
sheet? 36. A
26. A cylindrical shell of radius 7.00 cm and length 240 cm has a
its charge uniformly distributed on its curved surface. The in
magnitude of the electric field at a point 19.0 cm radially c
outward from its axis (measured from the midpoint of the a
shell) is 36.0 kN/C. Find (a) the net charge on the shell 37. A
and (b) the electric field Section
at a point
24.3 4.00 cm from the axis, u
Problem 24.24

Chapter 2
k eQr
P24.24 (a) E= = 0
a3

(b) E=
k eQr
=
e8.99 × 10 je26.0 × 10 ja0.100f = 365 kN C
9 −6

a 3
a0.400f 3

k Q e8.99 × 10 je 26.0 × 10 j
9 −6
e
(c) E= = = 1.46 MN C
r 2
a0.400f 2

(d) E=
k eQ
=
e8.99 × 10 je26.0 × 10 j =
9 −6

649 kN C
r2 a0.600f 2

The direction for each electric field is radially outward .

*P24.25
F IJ = qFG Q A IJ
mg = qE = qG
Q 2 0 mg 2 8.85 × 10
= =
e
−12
ja fa f
0.01 9.8
= −2.48 µC m
H2 K H 2 K 0 0 A q −0.7 × 10 −6

P24.26 (a) E=
2k e 4
3.60 × 10 =
e
2 8.99 × 10 9 Q 2.40 jb g
r Section 24.3 0.190
−7
Q = +9.13 × 10 C = +913 nC
 f the 30. A solid plastic sphere of radius 10.0 cm has charge with uni-
*P24.30 Let ρ represent the charge density. For the field inside the sphere at r1 = 5 cm we have
a) orProblemform 24.31 density throughout its volume. The electric field
q inside 4π r13 ρ r1 ρ
plain. 2
E1 4π5.00
r1 = cm=from theEcenter 1 = is 86.0 kN/C radially inward. Find
0 3 0 3 0
be. A 3the0 E1
magnitudee
3 8.85 × 10 Cof the electric
−12
−86 × 10 N 2
je
field −15.0
5 j
cm from the center.
3
3
ρ= = = −4.57 × 10 C m .
very r 1 .05 m Nm 2
31. Consider a thin spherical shell of radius 14.0 cm with a
0 C
flux Now for the field outside at r3 = 15 cm
total4π r charge of 32.0 $C distributed uniformly on its
3
2ρ
t the 2
E3 4π r3 =
surface.3 0 Find the electric field (a) 10.0 cm and (b) 20.0 cm

k 4 π a0.10 mf e−4.57 × 10 C j 8.99 × 10 Nm e −1.91 × 10 C j

from the center
3 of−5 the charge9 distribution.
2 −7

E3 = e
= = −7.64 × 10 4 N C
2
32. In3 nuclear fission,
r3 m a nucleus a0.15 mf of3
C uranium-238, which
2 2

E 3 = contains 92 protons,
76. 4 kN C radially inward can divide into two smaller spheres,

each having 46 protons and a radius of 5.90 % 10&15 m.

P24.31 (a) E= 0
What is the magnitude of the repulsive electric force
pushing the two9 spheres −6 apart?
k Q e8.99 × 10 je32.0 × 10 j
e
(b) E= = = 7.19 MN C E = 7.19 MN C radially outward
33. Fill r2
two a f
rubber balloons with air.
0 . 200
2
Suspend both of them
P24.32
from the same point and let them hang down on strings of
The distance between centers is 2 × 5.90 × 10 −15 m . Each produces a field as if it were a point charge
at its equal
center, and length.
each feelsRub
a forceeach
as if all withits chargewoolwere aor onat your
point hair, so that
its center.
they hang apart with a f 2a noticeable separation from each
k e q1 q 2
F = other. = e8.Make 9
99 × 10 N ⋅m C j
2 2
46
order-of-magnitude
e1 .60 × 10 −19
C j 2

= 3.50 × 10 3 N
estimates of= (a) the force
3.50 kN
r 2

on each, (b) the charge e on each,j (c) the field each creates
2 × 5 .90 × 10 −15
m
2

at the center of the other, and (d) the total flux of electric
field created by each balloon. In your solution state the
Section 24.3
quantities you take as data and the values you measure or
 flux passing through the surface of the gaussian sphere as
arge Problem 24.35 of r for r " a. (b) Find an expression for the
a function
ume. electric flux for r # a. (c) Plot the flux versus r.
cm, 35. A uniformly charged, straight filament 7.00 m in length has
nter a total positive charge of 2.00 $C. An uncharged cardboard
cylinder 2.00 cm in length and 10.0 cm in radius surrounds
e of the filament at its center, with the filament as the axis of
zon- the cylinder. Using reasonable approximations, find (a) the
n its electric field at the surface of the cylinder and (b) the total
astic electric flux through the cylinder.
36.
38 An Law
Gauss’s insulating sphere is 8.00 cm in diameter and carries
a 5.70-$C charge uniformly 2 distributed −6 throughout its
has 2k e 2 e 8.99 × 10 9
N ⋅ m C 2
j e 2.00 × 10 C j 7.00 m
The P24.35 interior
(a) E =volume.
r
= Calculate the charge enclosed by a
0.100 m
ially concentric spherical surface with radius (a) r ( 2.00 cm
the and (b)E r= (516.00
.4 kN C , radially outward
cm.
shell 37. A
(b) large Eflat cos = Eb 2π r sheet
= EAhorizontal g2 cos 0° of charge has a charge per
axis, unit area of 9.00 $C/m . Find the electric field just above
hell. the middleE = eof
4
N C j2π a0.100 mfb0.020 0 mga1.00f = 646 N ⋅ m 2 C
× 10sheet.
5.14the

Q 5.70 × 10 −6 −2 3
P24.36 (a) ρ= 4 3 = = 2 .13 × 10 C m
3πa b g
3
3 π 0.040 0 Section 24.3
4
 he plastic
36. An (b)
Problem 24.37
insulating b g
sphere is 8.00 cm in diameter and carries
E = EA cos = E 2π r cos 0°
40 cm has a 5.70-$C charge uniformly distributed throughout its
rface. The interior e
× 10 4 N C 2the
E = 5.14Calculate
volume. π 0.100
charge j a
0 m 1.00 =by646
m 0.020enclosed a fb
N ⋅ m2 C ga f
m radially concentric spherical surface with radius (a) r ( 2.00 cm
and (b) r ( 6.00 Q cm. 5.70 × 10 −6
oint of the P24.36 (a) ρ= = = 2.13 × 10 −2 C m 3
37. A large flat horizontal bsheet
0.040 0gof charge has a charge per
a3 3
3π
4
3π
4
the shell
m the axis, unit area of 9.00F 4$C/m I FG 4 π IJ b0.020 0g = 7.13 × 10 C =
2. Find the electric field just above

the shell. q = ρ
the middle of the Gin π r J
H 3sheet.K= e 2 .13 ×3
10 j H3 K
−2 3 −7
713 nC

qin = ρ
FG 4 π r IJ = e2.13 × 10 jFG 4 π IJ b0.040 0g
3 −2 3
= 5.70 µC
(b)
H3 K H3 K
9.00 × 10 −6 C m 2
P24.37 E= = = 508 kN C , upward
2 0 e
2 8.85 × 10 −12 2
C N ⋅m 2
j
P24.38 Note that the electric field in each case is directed radially inward, toward the filament

(a) E=
2ke
=
e
2 8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 C 2 90.0 × 10 −6 C m je
= 16.2 MN C
j
r 0.100 m

(b) E=
2ke
=
e
2 8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 C 2 90.0 × 10 −6 C m je
= 8.09 MN C
j
r 0.200 m

(c) E=
2ke
=
e
2 8.99Section N ⋅ m 2 C 2 90.0 × 10 −6 C m
× 10 9 24.3 je
= 1.62 MN C
j
r 1.00 m
Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic Equilibrium

When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor is said
to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
§ Whether the conductor is solid or hollow
If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge resides on its
surface.
The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to
the surface and has a magnitude of σ/εo.
§ s is the surface charge density at that point.
On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest at
locations where the radius of curvature is the smallest.

Section 24.4
Property 1: Fieldinside = 0

Consider a conducting slab in an

external field.
If the field inside the conductor were not
zero, free electrons in the conductor
would experience an electrical force.
These electrons would accelerate.
These electrons would not be in
equilibrium.
Therefore, there cannot be a field inside
the conductor.

Section 24.4
Property 1: Fieldinside = 0, cont.

Before the external field is applied, free electrons are distributed throughout the
conductor.
When the external field is applied, the electrons redistribute until the magnitude
of the internal field equals the magnitude of the external field.
There is a net field of zero inside the conductor.
This redistribution takes about 10-16 s and can be considered instantaneous.
If the conductor is hollow, the electric field inside the conductor is also zero.
§ Either the points in the conductor or in the cavity within the conductor can be
considered.

Section 24.4
Property 2: Charge Resides on the Surface

Choose a gaussian surface inside but

close to the actual surface.
The electric field inside is zero (property
1).
There is no net flux through the
gaussian surface.
Because the gaussian surface can be
as close to the actual surface as
desired, there can be no charge inside
the surface.

Section 24.4
Property 2: Charge Resides on the Surface, cont.

Since no net charge can be inside the surface, any net charge must reside on
the surface.
Gauss’s law does not indicate the distribution of these charges, only that it must
be on the surface of the conductor.

Section 24.4
Property 3: Field’s Magnitude and Direction

Choose a cylinder as the gaussian

surface.
The field must be perpendicular to the
surface.
§ If there
 were a parallel component
to E , charges would experience a
force and accelerate along the
surface and it would not be in
equilibrium.

Section 24.4
Property 3: Field’s Magnitude and Direction, cont.

The net flux through the gaussian surface is through only the flat face outside the
conductor.
§ The field here is perpendicular to the surface.
Applying Gauss’s law

σA σ
F E = EA = and E =
εo εo

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example

Conceptualize
§ Similar to the sphere example
§ Now a charged sphere is
surrounded by a shell
§ Note charges
Categorize
§ System has spherical symmetry
§ Gauss’ Law can be applied

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example, cont.

Analyze
§ Construct a Gaussian sphere
between the surface of the solid
sphere and the inner surface of the
shell.
§ Region 2
§ a<r<b
§ Charge inside the surface is +Q

§ The electric field lines must be

directed radially outward and be
constant in magnitude on the
Gaussian surface.

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example, 3

Analyze, cont.
§ The electric field for each area can be calculated.

Q
E1 = ke 3
r (for r < a )
a
Q
E2 = ke 2 (for a < r < b )
r
E3 = 0 (for b < r < c )
Q
E 4 = -k e (for r > c )
r2

Section 24.4
Sphere and Shell Example

Finalize
§ Check the net charge.
§ Think about other possible combinations.
§ What if the sphere were conducting instead of insulating?

Section 24.4
 charge per unit length of 30.0 nC/m. Find the electric 50. A
field (a)
Problem 3.00 cm, (b) 10.0 cm, and (c) 100 cm from the
24.40 rad
axis of the rod, where distances are measured perpendicu- at
lar to the rod. de
40. On a clear, sunny day, a vertical electric field of about ou
130 N/C points down over flat ground. What is the surface 51. A
charge density on the ground for these conditions? co
41. A very large, thin, flat plate of aluminum of area A has a ha
total charge Q uniformly distributed over its surfaces. Th
Assuming the same charge is spread uniformly over the Ga
Cha
upper surface of an otherwise Q
identical glass plate, compare ev
P24.40 From Gauss’s Law, EA =
the electric fields just above
0
the center of the upper 52. A
surface=of
Q each plate. −12
a−130f = −1.15 × 10 −9 C m2 = −1.15 nC m2 of
e
= E = 8.85 × 10
A
0 j
42. A solid copper sphere of radius 15.0 cm carries a charge of R.
40.0 nC.
P24.41 Findarethe
The fields electric
equal. field24.9(a)
The Equation E = 12.0 cm,for(b)
conductor 17.0
the field cm, the aluminum
outside
bo
and (c) 75.0 cm from the center of the0 sphere. (d) What
If ? How would
different from Equation 24.8 E = insulator
your answers change if field
for the thearound
sphere glass.were
But its charge will s
2 0
hollow? Q Sectio
cover both sides of the aluminum plate, so the density is conductor = . The glass carrie
2A 53. A
43. A square plate of copper Section with
Q 24.4 50.0-cm sidesQhas no net
only on area A, with insulator = . The two fields are the same in magnitude, and
at
 Q
P24.40 From Gauss’s Law,
upper24.42 EA =
surface of an0 otherwise identical glass plate, compare e
Problem
the
= =electric
Q
A
fields
0 E = e8.85 × 10
−12
ja −130fjust
= −1.15 above
× 10 −9 C mthe
2 center
= −1.15 nC m 2 of the upper 52. A
surface of each plate. o
conductor
P24.41 The fields are equal. The Equation 24.9 E = for the field outside the aluminum looks
42. A solid copper sphere of radius 0 15.0 cm carries a charge of R
40.0 nC.
different from Find
Equationthe
24.8 E electric
= insulator forfield
2 0
the field(a) 12.0
around glass. cm, (b) will
But its charge 17.0 cm,
spread out to b
and (c)sides
cover both 75.0 cm
of the fromplate,
aluminum the center
so the density isofconductor
the =sphere.
Q (d)
. The glass What
carries charge
2A
If? How would your Q answers change Q if the sphere were
only on area A, with insulator = . The two fields are the same in magnitude, and both are
hollow? A 2A 0 Sec
perpendicular to the plates, vertically upward if Q is positive.
43. A square plate of copper with 50.0-cm sides has no net 53. A
*P24.42 (a) All of the charge sits on the surface of the copper sphere at radius 15 cm. The field inside is
chargezeroand . is placed in a region of uniform electric field a
of 80.0 kN/C directed perpendicularly to the plate. Find c
(b) The charged sphere creates field at exterior points as if it were a point charge at the center:
(a) the charge density of2 each−9face of the plate and (b) the
ke q e 8 .99 × 10 9
Nm je40 × 10 Cj outward = 1.24 × 10 4 N C outward
total charge
E =
r2
on eachCface.
away = 2
a0.17 mf 2
44. A solid conducting sphere of radius 2.00 cm has a charge
e 8 .99 × 10 9
Nm 2
je 40 × 10 −9
C j outward = 639 N C outward
of
(c) 8.00
E = "C. A2 conducting
C a0.75 mf
2 spherical shell of inner radius W
4.00 cm and outer radius 5.00 cm is concentric with the
(d) All three answers would be the same.
solid sphere and has a total charge of !4.00 "C. Find the
P24.43 electric
(a) E = field at = (a) e 8.00 ×r10#4
je 8.1.00 cm,
85 × 10 −12 j (b)
= 7.08 × 10 −7r C#m 23.00 cm, (c) r #
Section 24.4
4.50 cm, 0 and 2(d) r # 7.00 cm from the center of this
= 708 nC m , positive on one face and negative on the other.