Cross-Cultural Music:

Japanese Flutes and their Influence

on Western Flute Music By Akiko Shimada

runo Bartrozzi states in his book, New Exploring cross-cultural music, including flute

B Sounds for Woodwind, that flutists and

composers are starting to explore new
possibilities for the flute. The instrument has a
music, is becoming more popular in Western
classical music. Japanese music in particular
focuses more on tone color and spiritual appeal
great range of possibilities and can express a vari- than on the traditional elements of Western
ety of sounds and moods. As Sollberger said, music: melody, rhythm, and harmony. Western
“Some people started to see the flute from a new music stresses vertical structure as well as linear
perspective possessing possibilities beyond what lines, while Japanese music emphasizes linear
our imaginations have yet grasped.”1 and spatial elements.

26 The Flutist Quarterly Winter 2009 nfaonline.org

Japanese Flutes
Japanese flutes are made with natural materials and do not
have any key mechanisms, just holes to cover. There are two
basic types of flutes: the vertical (e.g., shakuhachi) and the
transverse (e.g., shinobue, noh-kan). The shakuhachi has had
the most influence on Western flute literature because of its
diverse tone color and presence.

Shakuhachi
The shakuhachi is an end-blown flute made of bamboo.
Beginning in the 13th century, the shakuhachi was used by
the Fuke sect of Buddhism in the practice of suizen (blowing
meditation). Gradually, the shakuhachi began to be played by
the general public. There are two major schools of shakuhachi
in Japan: the Kinko and the Tozan. The Kinko school uses
traditional music, written in calligraphic Japanese katakana
symbols. The Tozan school plays newer music written in a
staff notation.
The name shakuhachi was based on Chinese measurement
of the instrument : 1 (shaku) 8 (hachi) 54.5cm.2 The
basic tone of the shakuhachi is similar to the sound made
when blowing across the lip of a bottle. The flute is held verti-
cally, and the player blows air downward into the instrument.
There are two major differences between the shakuhachi
and the Western flute: the shakuhachi produces sound by
vibration of the air reed, and the player’s fingertips cover the
holes of the instrument directly. A distinct sound can be
produced, and the player can express his or her true being at
the very moment of performance. The basic style of
shakuhachi playing is developed out of meditation practice: the
tone is generally mellow, and rhythm is very free. Although an
explosive, breathy sound can be created to increase intensity, Akiko Shimada

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CROSS-CULTURAL MUSIC: JAPANESE FLUTES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON WESTERN FLUTE MUSIC
Shinobue
Like a Western flute, the shinobue3 is a reedless instrument. It
is made from a length of bamboo and produces its sound
from air flowing against a tone hole. Although other Japanese
transverse flutes are only one length, there are 12 different
lengths of shinobue, which are numberd at the top of each
instrument. To play in tune with others, generally a singer
and a player of a shamisen (Japanese string instrument), the
flute player must choose the correct length of shinobue, and
thus the correct pitch, for each song. 4
Shakuhachi flutes, made of bamboo, date to the 13th century. The shinobue is used primarily in two settings: for mat-
suribayashi (festival) and for nagauta (vocal ensemble). The
shakuhachi music generally gives the listener a feeling of matsuribayashi-flute is the original type and is played with
ambiguity and nothingness. instruments that are not tuned, such as drums. It is not suitable
Although the shakuhachi has only five holes, tuned to a to play with other tuned instruments since it is not tuned
pentatonic scale with no half-tones, the flute has various properly; its holes are located at almost regular intervals to
possibilities of timbre through the use of fingering tech- facilitate playing. In recent years, a tuned shinobue with a
niques (i.e., half- and quarter-coverings of the keys) and third hole bigger than the original has been introduced.
embouchures (i.e., controlling the angle of the mouthpiece Uta-shinobue, made for playing in a vocal ensemble, has
against the lip). Thus, all 12 tones of the chromatic scale become more common. In Nagauta (music that accompanies
can be produced. the Kabuki theatre), the shinobue plays an obligato while a
Much of shakuhachi playing focuses on tone color. The singer and shamisen provide the main melody; thus the
various tone colors can be obtained by covering the holes in instrument needs to be tuned properly for voice and shamisen.
different combinations, by varying the speed of the airflows, Among the many lengths, numbers 6, 7, and 85 have become
and by tilting the shakuhachi inward and outward. more popular for beginners because they are easier to handle.
To create its distinct timbres, the player needs to have The hand position of the shinobue player is similar to that used
skilled embouchure techniques. with the Western flute, though the performer plays with
Meri / kari changes the pitch and timbre without altering straightened fingers and closes the holes with the first joints.
the fingerings, by moving the chin position onto the blowing As with other traditional music, shinobue was taught mainly
edge of the utaguchi (mouthpiece). Meri means to lower the by oral tradition, but beginning around the Meiji period
pitch and kari to raise it. For meri, the player needs to draw (1868–1912), a numbered score called sujifu was used.
in the chin and loosen the lip so that the distance between the Characteristic techniques used with the shinobue include
utaguchi and the lip gets closer: thus the pitch goes down. meri / kari and uchiyubi / atari.
For kari, the chin needs to stick out and the lip should be
tightened to make the pitch higher. In general, meri can Noh Flute
lower pitch by whole steps, but kari can raise pitch, at most, The Noh flute is used in the Noh ensemble and in the hayashi
by half steps. ensemble accompaniment for Nagauta and Kabuki music.
Uchiyubi / atari. In traditional performance practice, tongu- (Noh and hayashi ensembles are made up of specific types of
ing is not used. Repeated notes generally are separated by finger instruments for use in different kinds of Japanese plays.) The
hits called uchiyubi, i.e., opening and closing a hole. For the Noh flute creates a strong, high-pitched timbre generated by
beginning of a note, ornamentation called atari is created a narrower tube that is inserted inside the flute near the
with finger hits, which by switching can produce different mouth hole. The holes of the Noh flute are covered with the
pitches that add an interesting taste in shakuhachi sound. middle knuckle of the finger, and the player can achieve
Muraiki. To create an explosive, breathy sound, the player microtones by lifting the knuckle slightly from the holes.
blows a strong stream of air over the utaguchi. Although this The interesting characteristic of the Noh flute is its powerful,
technique can be considered a noise, it is one of the essential high, surprising tone, which is often used as a signal in an
COURTESY MONTY H. LEVENSON, TAI HEI SHAKUHACHI FLUTES

styles of shakuhachi playing. At its highest intensity, the listener ensemble when the music moves to the next phrase. General
can barely hear the noted pitch, and the volume of the tone color is piercing and forceful; and pitch fluctuation,
breathy sound is higher. created by covering the finger holes and changing the air
Yuri is a head movement made to produce a vibrato effect, direction, is used often.
used in the traditional performance practice. The player moves
the head horizontally (yoko-yuri) or vertically (tate-yuri).
Vibrato is wider in tate-yuri. Performing yuri requires great Japanese Music
skill, as explained in the Japanese idiomatic phrase, Kubi furi Like many genres of ethnic music, the Japanese scale basically
san-nen, koro hachi-nen (“It takes three years to move the consists of five pentatonic tones. There are many musical scales,
head properly and eight years to produce warm sound in but the principal tone system of Japanese modes is called
shakuhachi playing”). (Goin), which is derived from the Chinese music system.

28 The Flutist Quarterly Winter 2009 nfaonline.org

 Starting from the lowest tone, the five tones are called spirit is disturbed, breath and tone will be disturbed as well.
(kyu), (sho), (kaku), (chi), (u). Japanese music Ichion-jobutsu means that a single tone possesses many kinds
does not use a tempered scale, which is why it sounds so of expressions, elements, and meanings. This idea is applied
different from Western music. to classical flute music in such compositions as Wil
Offermans’s Honami, Fukishima’s Mei, and Takemitsu’s
Japanese Aesthetics “Air.” Even if the music requires playing a single-exercise-
Japanese and Western aesthetics are very different, as is evident like tone, the player is expected to bring out the meanings
in the music of Japanese composers. Japanese composer and emotional feeling of that single tone.
Ikuma Dan notes an important conceptual difference:
“Western musical forms are based on Western ideas of logic. Wabi-Sabi ( )
These ideals may differ from Eastern ideals of logic. The The concept ichion-jobutsu ( ) can be connected to
East has its own ideals, and it is in relation to them that another aesthetic, wabi-sabi—the idea of finding elegance
truly oriental musical forms must [have] evolved.”6 and beauty in simplicity or nothingness. Wabi-sabi can be
Some Western compositions for flute have not only used experienced in the beginning of Mei and other pieces that
traditional Japanese instruments but have also adopted find beauty in a simple phrase.
Japanese aesthetics, such as pieces by Toru Takemitsu, Kazuo
Fukushima, and Wil Offerman. Color
Japanese appreciate the distinctive colors and characteristics
Zen ( ) Buddhism and Silence in everything. This aesthetic applies across the arts and in the
Although Shinto is the most common religion in Japan, the full range of the Japanese perspective on the world. For
ideas of Buddhism influence Japanese daily life. Buddhism example, the Japanese appreciate the great variety of life’s
emphasizes the importance of being still and silent to achieve changing seasons of the year, the many regional subcultures,
enlightenment. Takiguchi wrote, in the preface of Takemitsu’s and the dialects of the Japanese language. Many traditional
book, “Just as people cannot live without voice and sound, they arts, such as Kabuki and Noh, consider the diverse seasons.
also cannot live without silence.”7 Many Japanese traditions Haiku, a traditional style of short poem, usually includes a
support this idea. For example, in Japanese archery (Kyudo), reference to the season somewhere in its 17 syllables.
the archers start by unifying and clearing the mind before Growing up in such an aesthetic tradition, composers like
beginning the main activities of shooting. To concentrate, Takemitsu learned to enjoy various colors in their music
one needs to be silent and let oneself hear what the soul is (e.g., Voice).
saying. Silence is a very positive experience, and its beats
cannot be counted. Naru ( )
Naru means “becoming,” experiencing time as the natural
Ma (time) yoin (echo) flow of life. Traditional Japanese music can be timeless, slow,
As Toru Takemitsu explained: “For Western musicians, the and free in rhythm, and tempos can fluctuate subtly rather
ideal is to sound as if one person is playing ensemble music. than changing suddenly. In Honami, Wil Offermans says to
But for Japanese musicians, it is about a texture of different “allow your breathing (the in as well as exhaling) to profile
layers of time in the music ... One plays slow, the other plays the timing and sonority. Regard this piece as a possibility to
faster, and another plays in between. In this ma (space) develop and expose the breathing.”9 As a performance practice
Japanese find beauty.”8 for this piece, do not worry too much about the length of
The beauty of traditional Japanese music is the use of each note; instead, enjoy a beauty or color of each note and
this spatial momentum, a concept very different from the allow yourself to follow the natural flow of life.
measured rests in Western music. It is not an abstractly calcu-
lated space but rather a “sensually” perceived space. Ambiguity
Also, by taking ma, Japanese enjoy the yoin in the music. One of the peculiar features of the Japanese language is its
Yoin can be translated as “echo.” During a quiet and still ambiguity. The Japanese people often speak in an impre-
moment of ma, people can enjoy the echo of the last cise, indirect manner, reflecting a traditional Japanese
tone—yoin. One does not just count the beats of the rest, point of view. Hajime Nakanura, an anthropologist,
but experiences the space and tonal echo within the space. noted that:
A good example of the use of ma and yoin is in “Air,” by
Takemitsu. From measure 19, the same motives are played ...The Japanese do not want to express explicitly the
in echo, and the performer has the opportunity to not subject of an action, unless necessary. The Japanese
count two beats, but, depending on the physical space of rather enjoy the sort of harmonious social atmos-
the performance, to enjoy the echo of the last note. phere of human relationship in which the speaker
and the person addressed are placed. This indicates
Sui Zen ( ) Ichion-Jobutsu( ) that the Japanese generally have tended not to state
A traditional Japanese instrumentalist verifies one’s feeling the subject personally, or to attribute actions to an
( ) by noticing personal breathing and sound—if one’s independent individual performer of the actions.10

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CROSS-CULTURAL MUSIC: JAPANESE FLUTES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON WESTERN FLUTE MUSIC

Western music stresses vertical structure and linear lines;

Japanese music emphasizes linear and spatial elements.
Such ambiguity is evident in the music of Takemitsu. Much Conclusion
of his music lacks a clearly identifiable form, features subtle Even if music is written for the Western flute, the composer
changes in timbre, and makes use of open space or silence. is often influenced by different cultures. Musicians should
not forget to study the background of each composition. By
Jo-ha-kyu ( ) As a musical form, jo is quiet, with learning about the culture that inspired the composer, we can
gradually increasing energy (introduction), ha is an outburst become more advanced in how we think about and play
(development), and kyu is an explosion toward the end Western music—we can create new musical forms and styles
(conclusion). This practice, which is used in Japanese tradi- that are traditionally neither Japanese nor Western, but a fusion
tional music such as shakuhachi, creates a circle, i.e., after the of the two. By incorporating other cultural influences with the
explosion of kyu, the music returns to the jo, and “every form Western flute, the music can grow and explore different sounds
emerges from nothingness, and to nothingness always returns.”11 and approaches.
This practice can be seen in a piece like Mei. The music Through the study of ethnic music, musicians and audiences
starts with pianissimo (jo) and builds the energy gradually; can learn to appreciate the culture and aesthetics of countries
an accelerando increases the intensity (ha), and the triple very different from their own. By incorporating the styles
forte (kyu) occurs at measure 11. and traditions of these cultures, the repertoire of the
Western flute can expand to explore different sounds and
Western Flute Music approaches to music. ❃
Influenced by Japanese flutes and aesthetics, the style of Japanese
composers’ music can be very pictorial. If one does not © 2008 Akiko Shimada
understand the concept of each piece, it is hard to understand
what the composer is trying to say. Cultural influences Akiko Shimada, flute and wind instrument department
behind music, such as ma (space), cannot be compared to instructor at the Tokyo School of Music, Japan, is a teacher,
traditional Western musical influences. performer, and researcher. She is a member of Trio Amiche
The flute music of Takemitsu, for example, has distinctive (flute, cello, and piano trio) and was a member of Music
and salient characteristics resulting from the fusion of Master’s in Kazusa, Tokyo, which was directed by two conduc-
Japanese traditions with Western flute; his music also shows tors, Allan Gilbert and Naoto Otomo. She received her DMA in
the influence of Japanese flutes. Takemitsu uses spaces (rests) flute performance and pedagogy and studied ethnomusicology
and ambiguous timbre effectively in his compositions. at the University of Colorado at Boulder in 2006, earlier earning
Through the rests, the performers experience yoin, and feel an MM in flute performance there. As a researcher, she special-
the vibration of the sound after each section. Through tone izes in Japanese flutes and music. Her major teachers have
color, the music suggests nature and rejects the artificial. included Alexa Still, Hiroaki Kanda, and Mitsunori
The best example of how aesthetics affects music is Mukaiyama. Visit akikoshimada.com.
Takemitsu’s Voice (1971). Takemitsu utilizes many Japanese
flute techniques, including quarter tones (microtones) and Editor’s note: This article is adapted from a presentation given
half breath or airy sounds, and these techniques are used at the NFA 2007 Convention in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
prominently in this piece. With the performer’s speaking,
similar to Noh theatre, this composition reflects the element ENDNOTES
1. Sollberger, Harvey. “The New Flute Part I,” Selmer Bandwagon 76. (1975):14–18.
of Noh-style flute as well, i.e., the opening sustained high
2. This length is the standard length of the shakuhachi, but other lengths are sometimes used.
note and the key clicks.
3. Fue is flute in Japanese. The word is derived from the term fuku-eda (blowing branch).
Takemitsu’s use of a wide variety of directions and spatial 4. No. 8 (8-hon choshi) is in C, No. 7 is in B, No. 6 is in Bb, No. 5 is in A, and so on. Shinobue
notational style (i.e., he composed without meters, instead is traditionally played with others. These days, one may hear a Shinobue solo performance at
giving instructions to the performer on the length of each a concert.
note) is based on Japanese aesthetics. One of the salient char- 5. No. 8 flute is about 45 cm.

acteristics of this piece is that an excerpt from the poem 6. Ikuma, Dan. “The Influence of Japanese Traditional Music on the Development of Western
Music in Japan.” Trans. by Dorothy Britton. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Japan 8 (1961):
Tezukurino Kotowaza (Handmade Proverbs), by Shuzo
227.
Takiguchi, gives a more ambiguous feeling to the piece:12 Qui 7. Takiguchi, Shuzo. Preface to Oto, Chinmoku to Hakariaeru Hodoni, by Toru Takemitsu.
va là? Qui que tu sois, parle, transparence! (Who goes there? Tokyo: Shunchosha, 1973.
Speak, transparence, whoever you are!) 8. Takemitsu, Toru. Watashino Mimiha Kikoete Iruka (Would Our Ears Listen to It Well?). Tokyo:
This piece is loosely structured, and Western ideas of musical Nihon Tosho Center, 2004.

form cannot be applied to it. As in much Japanese music, there 9. Offermans, Wil. Honami. Zimmermann, 1994.
10. Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples. London: Kegan Paul
is neither a clear climax nor a linear development of emotion.
International, 1997, 410.
Since the middle part is more rhythmic and compressed, it
11. Feliciano, Francisco F. Four Asian Contemporary Composers. Quezon City: New Day
may be said to have a structure of crescendo diminuendo, Publishers, 1983, 73.
resembling repetitions of jo-ha-kyu. 12. Takiguchi was one of the members of the Jikken Kobo (Experimental Workshop).

30 The Flutist Quarterly Winter 2009 nfaonline.org

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