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 Conflict and Fragility

Reducing
the Involvement
of Youth
in Armed Violence
PROGRAMMING NOTE
This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.
The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect
the official views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.

Please cite this publication as:

OECD (2011), Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note, Conflict
and Fragility, OECD Publishing.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264107205-en

ISBN 978-92-64-10720-5 (PDF)

Revised version (May 2011)

For more details, please visit: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/55/15/47758242.pdf

Series: Conflict and Fragility

ISSN 2074-3637 (online)

Photo credits: Cover © Franco Bosetti/Dreamstime.com.

Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

© OECD 2011

You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD
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 Foreword – 3

Foreword

Armed violence is an everyday reality for millions of people around the

globe. More than 700 000 people die as a result of armed violence each year.
Many more experience traumatic loss in their families and are left with last-
ing psychological and physical scars. The impact of armed violence extends
further, negatively influencing development, peace and good governance,
often by creating a climate of impunity, corruption and by undermining
public institutions. It is also closely tied with transnational crime and the
misery and abuse associated with the illegal trafficking of arms, drugs and
people. Finally, the economic impact of armed violence is striking with the
cost of lost productivity due to non-conflict armed violence alone estimated
to cost upwards of USD 95 billion annually worldwide. This violence has
important youth and gender dimensions. The majority of perpetrators and
victims are men, while women and girls are at greater risk of violence that is
less visible and committed in the private sphere, including intimate partner
violence, child abuse, sexual and gender based violence. Measures at reduc-
ing armed violence are therefore also measures at reducing human suffering.
The OECD DAC policy paper Armed Violence Reduction: Enabling
Development, published in 2009, acknowledged as a challenge the increased
levels of armed violence in non-conflict countries, the increasing linkage
between conflict and crime, rapidly growing youth populations in the south
and accelerating levels of unregulated urbanisation. The paper provided a
methodology to help donors tackle the programming challenging of reducing
armed violence. Building on the OECD DAC policy paper, three program-
ming notes were developed to contribute to our understanding of specific
types of armed violence: Youth and armed violence, armed violence in
urban areas and Security System Reform in relation to Armed violence
reduction. Each note aims to improve our understanding of these dynamics
while also offering practical assistance on assessments, programme design,
risk management, monitoring and evaluation, as well as on entry points for
direct and indirect programming.
2011 is an important year for global efforts at Armed violence reduc-
tion with a series of regional best practice seminars as well as the high-level

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
4 – Foreword

conference on Armed violence reduction in the context of the Geneva dec-

laration on armed violence and development, scheduled for October 2011. I
strongly encourage the use of these programming notes to strengthen our
understanding of these critical development issues and to support new inno-
vative programmatic guidelines for Armed violence reduction.

Jordan Ryan
Assistant Administrator and
Director, Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery
United Nations Development Programme

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
 Acknowledgements – 5

Acknowledgements

This programming note was prepared for the International Network on

Conflict and Fragility (INCAF) of the Development Assistance Committee
(DAC) of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD). The programming note was researched and drafted by Peggy
Ochandarena and Lyndsay McLean Hilker through the Security System
Reform Project. It was funded by the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) and the German Federal Ministry for Economic
Cooperation and Development (BMZ). A range of experts contributed
to drafting the note, including members of the INCAF Armed Violence
Reduction (AVR) advisory panel who provided insightful feedback during the
course of this paper’s conceptual development and editorial review. Special
recognition is owed to the following individuals for their input: Julie Werbel
and Joan Hoffman, and to Charlene Seligman and Sanida Kikic for research
efforts. Final thanks go to the secretariat of the OECD DAC’s International
Network on Conflict and Fragility (INCAF) for guidance and practical assis-
tance, in particular Rory Keane, Erwin van Veen, Sarah Cramer and Joshua
Rogers.

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
 Table of contents – 7

Table of contents

List of abbreviations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
OECD Armed Violence Reduction (AVR) programming notes��������������������������11

1. The links between youth and armed violence ������������������������������������������������� 13

Youth armed violence: Trends������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Factors that put youth at risk of engaging in armed violence��������������������������������17
Factors that prevent youth from engaging in armed violence������������������������������� 19
2. Assessments��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Assessment and analysis: Key approaches����������������������������������������������������������� 21
Assessment tools��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
3. Programming ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
The role of donors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
Entry points for programming ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
Programming approaches��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
Direct programme interventions��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Indirect programme interventions ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
4. Specific interventions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
Supporting parents ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
Supporting youth participation in the society and economy�������������������������������� 38
Supporting and enforcing youth rights������������������������������������������������������������������41
Supporting and keeping the peace ������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Managing risks����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45
5. Monitoring and evaluation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47
Data collection������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47
Performance indicator development��������������������������������������������������������������������� 49

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8 – Table of contents

6. Conclusions and recommendations������������������������������������������������������������������� 51

General lessons����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Lessons for programme design����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
Lessons for programme implementation��������������������������������������������������������������� 53

Notes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Bibliography ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59

Figure
Figure 3.1 Differing levels of youth engagement with violent groups ������������������� 33

Table
Table 3.1 The armed violence reduction framework and programme initiatives � 28

Boxes
Box 1.1 Youth: An important segment of the population ����������������������������������� 13
Box 1.2 The Armed Violence Reduction (AVR) framework applied to youth ����14
Box 1.3 Child soldiers ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Box 2.1 Gender issues and considerations����������������������������������������������������������������22
Box 2.2 West Bank Gaza: Palestinian Youth Empowerment Programme (Ruwwad) ��24
Box 3.1 Tajikistan: The Juvenile Justice Alternatives Project (JJAP) ����������������������30
Box 3.2 Systemic prevention of youth violence: A GTZ handbook to design and
plan comprehensive violence prevention measures��������������������������������������34
Box 3.3 Youth targeted interventions������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Box 4.1 Supporting parents��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
Box 4.2 Creating structures for youth participation in Bosnia and Herzegovina�����39
Box 4.3 Youth empowerment and employment in Kenya ����������������������������������������40
Box 4.4 Community issues ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Box 4.5 Establishing family and child protection units in police stations in
Northern Sudan��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Box 4.6 Examples of DDR programmes������������������������������������������������������������� 43
Box 4.7 Conflict prevention for youth and their communities in Guinea ����������������44
Box 4.8 Reforming juvenile justice systems: UNICEF examples from around
the world ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Box 4.9 Understanding risks������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
Box 5.1 The Inter-American observatory on security����������������������������������������� 48
Box 5.2 Juvenile justice system indicators ��������������������������������������������������������� 49
Box 6.1 Multi-sector programming��������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Box 6.2 Youth training����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
 Abbreviations – 9

List of abbreviations

AVR Armed violence reduction

DAC OECD Development Assistance Committee
DDR Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
(German Society for Technical Co-operation)
INCAF International Network on Conflict and Fragility
JJAP Juvenile Justice Alternatives Project in Tajikistan
NGO Non-governmental organisation
SSR Security system reform
UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
USAID United States Agency for International Development

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
 OECD Armed Violence Reduction (AVR) programming notes – 11

OECD Armed Violence Reduction (AVR)

programming notes

Approximately 740 000 people die as a result of armed violence each

year. Armed violence erodes governance and peace whilst slowing down
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It can have as
significant an effect on security and development in settings of chronic vio-
lent crime and inter-personal violence as it can in societies affected by war
or civil conflict. An armed violence agenda therefore includes a wide range
of countries, cities and citizens whose development and security are under
threat. It refers to the use or threatened use of weapons to inflict injury, death
or psychosocial harm.
To help desk officers and conflict/fragility experts who are working to tackle
the problem of armed violence, OECD Development Assistance Committee
(DAC) members have requested three Armed Violence Reduction (AVR)
Programming Notes to build on the OECD DAC policy paper on Armed Violence
Reduction: Enabling Development (OECD, 2009). The three notes cover:
• Armed violence in urban areas: The majority of the world’s popula-
tion now lives in urban centres. As economic transformations accel-
erate rural-urban migration, the rural poor are being converted into
an urban poor who populate mega-slums on the periphery of major
urban centres. More and more of these areas are afflicted by high
levels of armed violence.
• Youth and armed violence: The largest-ever generation of young
people is now entering adulthood. Almost half of the world’s popula-
tion is under the age of 24 and the vast majority of 10-24-year-olds
live in less developed countries. Youth are particularly at risk of
being exposed to and engaging in armed violence and crime.
• AVR and security system reform (SSR): AVR and SSR have similar
objectives and are mutually reinforcing. But they also have their dis-
tinct methods, entry points and comparative advantages. It is important
to understand the linkages between the two approaches in order to
maximise the impact of public safety and security interventions.

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
12 – OECD Armed Violence Reduction (AVR) programming notes

To ensure an effective response to armed violence, the programming

notes use an armed violence “lens”, which was developed in Armed Violence
Reduction: Enabling Development. The lens helps practitioners consider the
key elements shaping armed violence patterns. These include the people
affected by armed violence, the perpetrators and their motivations, the avail-
ability of instruments (arms) and the wider institutional/cultural environ-
ment that enables and/or protects against armed violence. The lens highlights
risk factors associated with armed violence and their vertical linkages from the
local to the global level. It encourages practitioners to think outside specific
sector mandates and provides practical entry points for AVR programming.
Armed violence prevention and reduction are feasible but require signifi-
cant leadership by affected states and investment of financial resources by
development partners. They also require the ability to engage with non-state
and sub-national actors. Finally, effective interventions need a good evidence
base, participatory assessments and the simultaneous engagement in multiple
sectors (reflecting the broad range of interrelated issues and actors involved),
at multiple levels (local, national, regional and global) and over a longer time
horizon.

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
 1. The links between youth and armed violence – 13

Chapter 1

The links between youth and armed violence

It is critical that donors focus on youth because they are the largest and
potentially most significant population in the developing world; approximately
1.3 billion youth live in developing countries (World Bank, 2007; Box 1.1).
Rather than using a rigid construct based on age, this programming note
defines youth as those people in the transitional stage between childhood
and adulthood.1 The majority lack basic education, marketable skills, decent
employment and opportunities for positive engagement in their communities.
While most youth do not engage in significant or repeated acts of violence,
evidence suggests that out-of-school and un- or underemployed youth are at
greater risk of becoming perpetrators – and victims – of violence and crime,
along with youth who suffer from economic and social deprivation, margin-
alisation, neglect and abuse (Social Development Direct, 2009). Such negative
outcomes have costs for the individuals themselves, as well as their families,
communities, society and the economy. On the other hand, when their energies
and skills are supported and channelled productively, youth can be a powerful
force for constructive change.
This programming note builds on the recent OECD publication, Armed
Violence Reduction: Enabling Development (OECD, 2009) and applies the
framework it presents specifically to youth armed violence (Box 1.2).2 That
framework describes the key elements that shape armed violence patterns:

Box 1.1. Youth: An important segment of the population

In Afghanistan, 68% of the population is under 25; in the Palestinian Territories,

67% of the population is under 24 (World Bank, 2007). At the end of the Sierra
Leone civil war in 2002, 63% of the population was under 25 (IRIN, 2007). In
West Africa, 40% of the population is less than 15 years old.
Source: Florquin and Berman, 2005.

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
14 – 1. The links between youth and armed violence

the people affected by armed violence, the perpetrators and their motiva-
tions, the availability of instruments and the wider institutional/cultural
environments that enable or protect against armed violence. It encourages

Box 1.2. The Armed Violence Reduction (AVR) framework applied to youth

The AVR framework takes into consideration the main elements shaping armed violence patterns:
• The people affected by armed violence – the victims, communities and societies that
suffer. Evidence shows that youth who are witnesses and victims of violence at family
and community levels and during armed conflicts can become conditioned to regard
violence as an acceptable means to resolve problems. This can increase the likelihood
that they will be future perpetrators.
• The perpetrators of armed violence, their motives, and the ways in which they are
organised. Violent youth tend to commit a range of crimes and exhibit a range of risky
behaviours. Youth may not always be willing perpetrators of violence but engage in
violence due to external pressures, including peer pressures and negative social norms,
perceptions and practices.
• The instruments of armed violence, focusing on an analysis of how arms are integrated
into a community’s socio-economic, cultural, and political fabric. The widespread
availability of weapons does not cause armed violence, but is a risk factor, with youth
viewing weapons as sources of protection and status. The increasing availability of
small arms, which are used in about 60% of all homicides, and their ease in handling,
makes them accessible to even young children.
• The institutions, including both the formal and informal, which regulate and control
the use of armed violence. Formal institutions focus on capacities and deficits in the
public security and justice, education, and health sectors as well as broader problems
of governance, service delivery, and social protection. Informal institutions focus on
social and cultural factors, including culturally-accepted norms that facilitate or pro-
hibit the use of armed violence, as well as community-based organisations that are part
of and affect the social fabric.
• The AVR lens includes four levels of engagement: the local, national, regional and
global. Examples of youth armed violence at these levels include:
• Local: Central American neighbourhood gang warfare.
• National: youth used to create fear and intimidation by politicians in Zimbabwe and Kenya.
• Regional: cross-border militias in Africa’s Great Lakes region that include youth from
four countries.
• Global: Muslim youth drawn into global jihad extremist movements.
Source: OECD, 2009.

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
 1. The links between youth and armed violence – 15

practitioners to think outside of specific programming mandates and offers a

shared analysis that can bring together a diverse array of actors who work on
different aspects of armed violence, even if they are not working in tandem.
This note also outlines how development agencies should target interven-
tions to prevent and reduce youth armed violence. It covers characteristics of
youth armed violence, assessments, entry points for programming, program-
ming options by sector, risk management, monitoring and evaluation. It takes
a holistic approach to youth armed violence, recognising that in practice,
similar developmental factors underlie youth engagement in violence, regard-
less of the context. Youth armed violence occurs in multiple contexts such as
within relationships or in the course of criminal activity.
This note emphasises the importance of providing constructive alterna-
tives to violent groups and ideologies. Extensive research has been done on
youth violence stemming from biological, psychological and family risk fac-
tors (WHO, 2002; Social Development Direct, 2009). A key conclusion is that
intervention at infant and early childhood stages is critical. The most effective
programming would include preventative strategies alongside programmes to
address current issues.

Youth armed violence: Trends

Children and youth are increasingly growing up in cultures where armed

violence is a norm within families, communities, or states. Trends in contem-
porary conflict affecting youth include the increasing proximity of violence
to the lives of young people and the eroding of boundaries between different
kinds of violence (UNICEF, 2007a). Young people in the developing world are
living in environments in which firearms are cheap, poorly regulated, widely
circulated and often traded illicitly, increasing armed violence and hindering
peace building and humanitarian assistance. These weapons are easy for youth
to learn to use and to carry; for example, more than 90% of young people

Box 1.3. Child soldiers

There are an estimated 300 000 child soldiers under the age of 18 engaged in
more than 33 conflicts around the world. Boys and girls are used as combat-
ants, messengers, porters and cooks and for forced sexual services. Some are
abducted or forcibly recruited; others are driven to join by poverty, abuse and
discrimination, or to seek revenge for violence enacted against them or their
families.
Source: UNICEF, 2007a.

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
16 – 1. The links between youth and armed violence

involved in conflict in a variety of roles in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone

had access to weapons (Florquin and Berman, 2005). The increasing famili-
arity of youth with small arms and their proliferation can sustain a culture of
interpersonal and gang-related violence in stable societies that are “at peace”,
as well as in fragile and post-conflict societies, where the easy access to guns
has the potential to help trigger or reignite conflict.
Today’s armed groups are often non-state actors using non-traditional
forms of warfare to fight internal rather than inter-state conflicts. Frequently,
they adopt strategies that bring the battle more immediately to the civilian
population and into the lives of millions of youth (Box 1.3). A state’s use of
paramilitary and proxy forces increases youth vulnerability because these
forces are less accountable to government and the public. Youth are increas-
ingly used as perpetrators or accomplices in terrorist acts and in some places
have increasingly come under suspicion and suffer severe abuses when
detained. Motivations and actions of violent groups fluctuate between crimi-
nal, ideological and political such that clear lines can be difficult to draw. For
example, armed conflict that began over political grievances can be furthered
by opportunistic greed. Mischaracterising violent groups can exclude them
from conflict resolution dialogue and demobilisation (UNICEF, 2007a).
The result of the realities described above is that young people are often
involved in armed violence simultaneously as perpetrators, victims and wit-
nesses. Young people are frequently the victims of violence – boys and young
men are most at risk of conflict-related death and homicide; girls and young
women are increasingly at risk of sexual violence, especially in situations of
armed conflict. Youth homicide and non-fatal violence not only contribute
greatly to the global burden of premature death, injury and disability, but also
have a serious, sometimes lifelong, impact on behaviour and psychological
and social functioning, and affect victims’ families, friends and communities.
Violence involving young people adds greatly to the costs of health and wel-
fare services, reduces productivity, decreases the value of property, disrupts
essential services and undermines the fabric of society (WHO, 2004).
Policy makers and practitioners have tended to conduct separate analysis
for different forms of collective violence – political, criminal and ideological
– in which youth are involved. A close examination of the evidence suggests
that the underlying psychological factors that influence voluntary youth par-
ticipation in different types of violent groups are similar, despite the differ-
ent contexts in which youth participate. For example, youth living in Latin
America may be motivated to join a gang for the same reasons that youth in
Africa join armed groups as child soldiers. The developmental tasks of ado-
lescence include solidifying a set of values that guide behaviour, responding
more to their peers than adults, achieving independence from adults emo-
tionally and financially, and becoming members of the community (Erikson,

Reducing the Involvement of Youth in Armed Violence: Programming Note – © OECD 2011
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