Chapter One

Introduction to workshop
Safety Rules

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By Getachew G/A
 INTRODUCTION
Safety precaution

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 Safety
describes that it is the way of doing
work correctly to prevent accident.
 It can be defined as the way of prevention
of accidents.
The prevention of accident concerns
 The work man (operator) and his partner
 The work piece
 The working tool 2
 the work shop
Causes of accidents
 Faulty attitude towards safety

 Emotions (anger, worry, excitements…)

 The other causes of accident are not to take safety as

a way of life.

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General safety measures
 Dress correctly (wear apron, short sleeved beltless
coats).
 Remove rings, wrist watches, necklaces, bra- slates.

 Protect your eyes

 No horse play

 No scrap materials on the flour

 Take care of injuries

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“Safety first” is a good slogan at any time especially in the
workshop and at site work. Your attitude to safety at all times
should be positive. You must know what to do, what to use, what
to prevent and what to guard against in the working area.

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Remember, “An unsafe worker is an unwanted worker”
therefore, before you start working, observe the following safety
rules:
 Follow instructions: The safe way to do a job is to do it
in the correct way.
 Use the right tools for right works.
 Never use any power tools without permission from4
responsible person.
 Reading Assignments
on
Safety Rules and Regulations

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 Chapter Two
Measuring and Layout Tools

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 MEASUREMENT
o Measurement is the process of
determining or finding the size, quantity
or degree of something .

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o The word "measurement" is derived from the Greek
word "metron" which means a limited proportion.
o The principle dimensional measurement is
length; secondary measurement is angle
and curvature. You can describe shape
without describing size, but not the reverse.
o Measurement science is vital for trade &
commerce, & the basis of modern science&
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technology.
 MEANS OF MEASUREMENT
The means of measurement could be classified as follows:

I. Standards (reference masters or setting standards)

- these are used to reproduce one or several definite

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values of a given quantity.

II. Fixed gauges - these are used to check the

dimensions, form, and position of product features.

III. Measuring instrument - these are used to

determine the values of the measured quantity. 8
 SI UNITS

Measured Quantity Units Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electrical Current Ampere A
Quantity of substance Mole mol
Luminosity Candela Cd
Plane angle Radian rd
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ENGLISH UNITS
English unit Value Equivalent value
in SI

Miles 1mile=1760yard 1 mile = 1.609 km

Yard
1 yard = 3 ft 1yd = 91.44 cm

Foot
1 ft = 12 in 1 ft = 30.48 cm

Inch
in 1 in = 25.4 mm

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 CONCEPT OF MEASURMENT

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

 Measurements are said to be accurate if
their tendency is to center around the
actual value of the entity being measured.
 Measurements are precise if they differ
from one another by a small amount.
 What can you say about the causes
relating to each type?
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Precision Precision vs. Accuracy

Accuracy

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Accuracy: is the lowest dimension that can be measured using the measuring tool.
Example:
The Accuracy of Steel Rule is 0.5 or 1mm
The Accuracy of vernier calliper is 0.1, 0.05 and 0.02 mm
Precision: the closeness or the agreement occurring between the results obtained for a quantity

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measured several times using the same instrument at the same condition
Example
Vernier calliper is more precise than Steel Rule
Micrometer is more precise than Vernier calliper.
Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value (Ideal
Dimension) of the quantity.
Example
True Value = 10mm, Measured value=9.75
Error= 10-9.75=0.25mm 13
 Measuring Tools
• Ruler
A rule is a tool consisting of a straight-edged strip of
metal, wood, or some other material, graduated in some
units of measurement
• Caliper
Calipers are the very simple tools used together with a
steel rule for the measurement or comparison of linear
dimensions
• Vernier caliper
Vernier caliper is a measuring device used to measure
precise increments between two points.
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 STEEL RULE
 Steel rules are semi-precision measuring devices- Steel
rule, Tape rule, Zigzag rule, etc

 Use:- for linear measurement and marking.

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 Material:- spring steel or stainless steel.

 Graduation:- in 10mm, 5mm, 1mm

and 0.5mm in metric system. The
reading accuracy of the steel rule
is 0.5mm.
 Size:- available in 150mm, 300mm 15
& 600mm.
 Lengths can be measured by using the
following
 metre/half-metre rule
 accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

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calipers
Calipers are the very simple tools used together with a
steel rule for the measurement or comparison of linear
dimensions

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Outside caliper
Outside calipers are used for measuring external
dimensions such as the length, diameter, or even the
thickness of a solid.

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remove the calipers and measure
the jaws are closed until the distance between the jaws with
the points just touch the a ruler 18

object to be measured
Inside caliper
Inside calipers are used for measuring internal dimensions such as
the diameter of a hole, or the width of a slot etc.

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 VERNIER CALIPER
 It is difficult to take accurate readings with a
rule, because you have to estimate measurements.
You can obtain better accuracy with the
vernier calliper
 Function

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 To measure smaller distances
 Can measure up to .001 inch or .01mm.
 Features
 Larger, lower jaws are designed to measure outer
points e.g. diameter of a rod.
 Top jaws are designed to measure inside points e.g.
size of a hole.
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 A rod extends from the rear of the caliper and can be
used to measure the depth.
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STRUCTURE OF THE VERNIER CALIPER

 Main Scale
 Main scale is graduated in cm and mm.

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 Vernier Scale
 Itslides on the main scale.
 On Vernier scale 0.9 cm(9 mm) is divided into
10 equal parts.
 Jaws

 Two inside jaws (Upper)

 Two outside jaws (Lower) 28
 LEAST COUNT
 Least count (L.C) is the smallest reading we can measure
with the instrument.

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 L.C = one main scale division – one
vernier scale division
L.C = 1mm – 0.9mm
L.C = 0.1mm = 0.01cm
 Least
Count = Value of the smallest division on MS/ Total
number of division on VS
L.C = 1mm / 10 = 0.1 cm / 10 = 0.01cm

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HOW TO USE VERNIER CALIPER?
 Close the jaws
 Calculate the least count

 Place the object between

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the two jaws
 Record the position of
zero of Vernier scale on the
Main scale (3.2cm)
 Notice the reading of VS
which coincides with MS
reading (3rd division in this
case) 30
READING OF THE INSTRUMENT

 Readingof the instrument

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= MS div + (coinciding VS div x L.C)
 = 3.2 + (3 x 0.01)
 = 3.2 + 0.03
 = 3.23 cm

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TO MEASURE THE DEPTH

 A rod extends from the rear of the caliper and

can be used to measure the depth.

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 Open the jaws of caliper and place the rod
inside hole of the object, such as the rod
reaches the inner most portion of the object.
 Read the Vernier caliper. (same procedure as
described in previous slides)

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 MEASURING EXTERNAL SIZE / DIAMETER

 Use the outside jaws of the

caliper as shown.

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 (same procedure as described
in previous slides)

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MEASURING DEPTH OF A HOLE

Use the depth gauge of the

caliper as shown

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 READING THE VERNIER SCALE

 Read the “0” position of the vernier scale on the

main scale to get a rough reading.
 Rough reading = 18mm

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Look along the
veriner scale until
one of the veriner
division coincides
with the mail scale.
Accurate reading
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=18.46 mm
EXAMPLE 1: The external measurement (diameter) of a round section piece of steel is
measured using a vernier caliper, metric scale.

A. The main metric scale is read first and this shows that there are 13 whole divisions
before the 0 on the hundredths scale. Therefore, the first number is 13.
B. The’ hundredths of mm’ scale is then read. Only one division on the main metric
scale lines up with a division on the hundredths scale below it, whilst others do not. In
the example below, the 41st division on the hundredths scale lines up exactly with a

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division on the metric scale above.
C. This 41 is multiplied by 0.02 giving 0.82 as the answer (each division on the
hundredths scale is equivalent to 0.02mm).
D. The 13 and the 0.82 are added together to give the final measurement of 13.82mm
(the diameter of the piece of round section steel).

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 EXERCISE
What is the reading in the caliper shown?
Please click on one of the following answer.

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A. 3.51cm

B. 3.57cm 3 4

C. 3.62cm 3.5

D. 3.642cm
0 5 10
E. 3.67cm

overlap
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 SOLUTION
Read the “0” position of the
vernier scale on the main scale

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to get a rough reading.
Rough reading = 3.6cm
Look along the vernier scale
until one of the vernier division 3 4
coincides with the main scale
Accurate reading =
3.67cm±0.005cm
0 5 10

overlap
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vernier depth gauge
 A vernier depth gauge
is used for measuring:
 depth of hole,

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 slots and
 recesses.

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Vernier Height Gauge
 A vernier height gauge
is used for :

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 measuring the height
of an object or
 for marking lines
onto an object of
given distance from a
datum base.
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Micrometer Micrometer
Basic types
• The image shows three common types of micrometers; the
names are based on their application:
• Outside micrometer
• Inside micrometer.
• Depth micrometer.
• Bore micrometer.
• Tube micrometer.
• An outside micrometer is typically used to measure wires,
spheres, shafts and blocks. An inside micrometer is commonly
used to measure the diameter of holes, and a depth micrometer
typically measures depths of slots and steps. The bore
micrometer
• is typically a three anvil head on a micrometer base used to
accurately measure inside diameters. Tube micrometers are
used to measure the thickness of tubes. 44
Operating principles

• The accuracy of a micrometer derives from the

accuracy of the thread form of the screw that is at its
heart.
• The basic operating principles of a micrometer are
as follows:
• The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw
can be directly and precisely correlated to a certain
amount of axial movement (and vice versa), through
the constant known as the screw's lead A screw's
lead is the distance it moves forward axially with one
complete turn (360°). (In most threads [that is, in all
single-start threads], lead and pitch refer to
essentially the same concept.)
• With an appropriate lead and major diameter of the
screw, a given amount of axial movement will be 45
amplified in the resulting circumferential movement.
 Parts of micrometer
• Anvil: The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that
the thing to be measured rests against.
• Barrel: The stationary round part with the linear scale on it.
• Frame: The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in
constant relation to each other. It is thick because it needs to
minimize flexion, expansion, and contraction, which would
distort the measurement.
• Lock-ring: The knurled part that one can tighten to hold the
spindle stationary, such as when momentarily holding a
measurement.
• Screw (not seen): The heart of the micrometer, as explained
under "Operating principles". It is inside the barrel.
• Spindle: The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to
move toward the anvil.
• Thimble: The part that one's thumb turns. 46
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Principle of the Metric Micrometer
• Pitch
– Distance from point on one thread to corresponding point
on next thread
– Metric thread pitch expressed in millimeter measurement.
– Pitch is measured as 0.5 millimeter
• Lead
• Distance screw thread advances axially in one
revolution
• One full revolution of the thimble moves the measuring
faces 0.5 (½) millimeter closer or further apart.

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• Zero line on thimble lines up with the
index line on the sleeve or barrel.
– Measuring faces just touch when using a
0-25 millimeter micrometer

 Thimble has 50 equal divisions

– Each division represents .01 millimeter
– One complete revolution of spindle, one
line appears
– Every line represents 0.5 millimeter
– Every 5th line long is numbered and
represents whole millimeters
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Principle of the Metric Micrometer

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Principle of the Metric Micrometer cont’d

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The reading in Figure is:
 Upper main scale 12.00 mm
 Lower main scale (no half mm) 0.00 mm
 Circular thimble scale 0.13 mm
13 X 0.01 mm = 0.13mm
 Total reading 12.13 mm
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 21.00
.21
21.21mm

13.27mm

5.59mm

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LAYING OUT
 Laying out is the process of scribing lines,
points and arcs on to the metal to indicate
the shape and size of the object or it is

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transforming the drawing of the object to
be made on to the metal.
 Accuracy of a layout is very important to
the accuracy of the finished product.
 Good layout will entail the proper and
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careful use of all layout tools.
 SCRIBER
Use:- scribe lines to indicate the dimensions of the work
piece to be filed or machined.

Material:- They are made of high carbon steel.

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Types:- 1. Single ended 2. Double ended
3. Knife edge 4. Off-set.
1. Single ended:- This scriber is also
known as Hand scriber. Point is
made on one side only. Knurling is
made on the body of this scriber.
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2. It is used for general marking
purposes.
Straight 2. Double ended:- This
Point
scriber has one point each

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at both ends. One of which
is bent at 90º, another point
is kept straight. Centre
Grip portion of body is knurled
for better gripping. This
Bent scriber is used mainly in
Point accordance with scribing
block. 57
 3. Knife edge:- This scriber has one
point each at both ends. One of
which is knife edge, another point
is kept straight. Centre portion of

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body is knurled for better gripping.
This scriber is used mainly for
plastic and wood working

4. Off-set:- Point of this scriber is made

offset to facilitate the marking of
minimum height and to set zero when
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used with Vernier Height Gauge.
 TRY SQUARE
Use:- to check the squareness of
machined surface, flatness of
surface, make lines at 90º to the edge

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Blade of work pieces & to set work piece at
right angle on work holding device.
90º Material:- hardened steel.
Size:- available in 100mm, 150mm
& 200mm.
Types:- 1. Fixed try square
Stock 2. Adjustable try square59
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 DIVIDER

Use:- for scribing circles,

arcs and transferring and

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stepping of distances.
Material:- tool steel or
Spring
high carbon steel.
Type
Size:- 50mm to 200mm.

Wing 61
Type
 • For the correct location and setting of the
divider legs, prick punch marks of 30º are
used.
• Both the legs of the divider should always

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be of equal length.
• Dividers are specified by the type of their
joints and length.
• The divider point should be kept sharp in
order to produce fine lines.
• Frequent sharpening with an oil stone is
Firm Joint better than sharpening by grinding.
Sharpening by grinding will make 62the
points soft.
TRAMMEL
Used to scribe larger circles and arcs that are not within
the capacity of dividers

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 CALIPER
CALIPER:- Calipers are simple measuring entinstrum
used to transfer measurement from steel rule to objects
and vice versa. They are made from tools steel or high

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carbon steel.
Outside Caliper
1. Firm joint caliper:- In the case of firm
joint caliper, both legs are pivoted at one
end. To take measurement of a work piece,
the caliper is opened roughly to the
required size. Fine setting is done by
tapping the caliper lightly on a wooden
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surface.
Spring 2. Spring joint caliper:- For this type
of caliper, the legs are assembled by
Pivot means of a pivot loaded with a spring.

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For opening and closing the caliper
legs, a screw and nut are provided.
Spring joint caliper have the
advantage of quick setting. The
setting made will not change unless
the nut is turned. The size of caliper is
specified by its length, which is the
Adjusting distance between the pivot centre and
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the tip of the leg.
Unit
 Inside Caliper

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3. Inside Caliper:- This caliper is used to measure the inside
dimensions like the width of slots, diameter of holes, etc.
Legs of this caliper are bent in outward direction as shown
in figure beside.
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4. Odd leg Caliper:- This caliper is also known as Jenny
caliper or Hermaphrodite caliper or leg and point
caliper.They are used for marking lines parallel to inside
and outside edges, locating the centre of round bars,
drawing parallel lines along outer edges, scribing lines
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along curved edges.
 Engineer’s bevel:- is a tool that is used for transferring
angles and testing angular surfaces for accuracy. This
tool not used for measuring angles.

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Bevel Protractor:- is used to check the angles of
inclined surfaces, marking out, and for transferring
angles. Graduated in degrees from 0-1800

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Combination set:- is a versatile too used in laying out that
consists of a steel rule, square head, bevel protractor and
center head.

bevel protractor

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steel rule,

center head square head

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Blade
The blade is designed to allow the different heads to slide along the blade
and be clamped at any desired location. The groove in the blade is
concave to eliminate dirt buildup and permit a free and easy slide for the
heads. By removing all the heads, the blade may be used alone as a rule.

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Square Head
The square head is designed with a 45° and 90° edge, which makes it
possible to be used as a try square and miter square. By extending the
blade below the square, it can be used as a depth rule. The square head
can also be used as a level.

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Bevel Protractor
The protractor head is equipped
with a revolving turret graduated in
degrees from 0 to 180 or to 90 in
either direction. It is used to
measure or lay out angles to an

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accuracy of 0.5°.

Center Head
The center head, when inserted on
the blade, is used to locate and lay
out the center of cylindrical work
pieces.
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 PUNCH
Use:- Punches are used in order to make certain
dimensional feature of the layout permanent.

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Material:- They are made of high carbon steel.

Types:- 1. Centre punch(90º)

2. Dot punch(60º)
3. Prick punch(30º)
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1. Centre Punch:- The angle of
the point is 90º. The punch
mark made by this is wide and

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not very deep. This punch is
used for locating hole. The
wide punch mark gives a good
seating for starting the drill. Centre Punch

2. Dot Punch:- The angle of the

point is 60º. This punch is used
for marking witness marks. 73

Dot Punch
 Prick Punch
3. Prick Punch:- The angle of the
point is 30º. The 30º point

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punch is used for making light
punch marks needed to position
dividers. The divider leg will
get a proper seating in the
punch mark.
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 SURFACE PLATE

Use:- Surface plates are used most widely as a datum

surface in machine shop work.

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Material:- Gray cast iron and Granite.

Specification:- Cast iron surface plates are designated

by their length, breadth, grade and the Indian Standard
number. i.e. C.I. Surface plate 2000 X 1000 Gr1. I.S.
2285. 75
SURFACE PLATE

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TOP
Heavy
Ribs

3 Point suspension 76

BOTTOM
 SCRIBING BLOCK

Use:- It is used for ;

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- Scribing lines parallel to a datum surface.
- Setting job on machines parallel to a datum surface.
- Checking the height and parallelism of jobs, setting
jobs concentric to the machine spindle
Types:-
1. Fixed scribing block
2. Universal scribing block. 77
 Fixed Scribing Block

Scriber
1. Fixed Scribing Block:- The

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fixed type of surface gauges
Snug
Nut
consists of a heavy flat base
and a spindle, fixed upright,
Spindle to which a scriber attached
with a snug and a clamp nut.

Base

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 Universal Scribing Block
2. Universal Scribing Block:- This
surface gauge has the following Spindle Scriber
additional features;
Snug

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- The spindle can be set to any
position. Nut
- Fine adjustments can be made Fine
Base
quickly. adj.
screw
- Can also be used on cylindrical
surfaces.
Rocker
- Parallel lines can be scribed from Guide
Pin arm
any datum edge with the help of
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guide pins.
 ANGLE PLATE

Use:- To support the job and to provide a vertical or

angular plane for marking.

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Material:- Angle plates are made from Cast iron or
Steel.
Types:-
1. Solid Angle plate
2. Adjustable Angle Plate
3. Box Angle plate. 80
Solid Angle Plate:- This angle
plate is most common. It has the
two plane surfaces perfectly

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machined at 90º to each other.
Such angle plates are suitable for
supporting work pieces during
layout work. They are
comparatively smaller in size.
Slots are provided to clamp the
work piece and to reduce the
weight. 81
Adjustable Angle Plate:-
This angle plate is available to

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support job in different
angles. Graduations are
marked on it to set the job at
particular angle. Slots are
provided on it to clamp the job
by clamping bolts. They are
available in Grade-I and
Grade-II
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Box Angle Plate:- They
have applications similar to

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those of other angle plates.
After setting, the work can
be turned over with the
box enabling further
marking out or machining.
This is a significant
advantage. This has all the
faces machined square to
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each other.
Vee Block
Vee blocks usually in a couple are made
of cast iron or steel in case-hardening.
They are generally used for holding

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circular work piece for marking out or
machining.

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 METHODS OF LAYING OUT
Laying out fluids
The surface of metals is usually coated with a
lay out solution to make layout lines visible.
Several types of layout solutions are available,

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however to use any of them grease free and
clean surface is required.
 Layout die or bluing is the commonly used
solution.
• copper colored surface- drop of sulfuric
acid.
• Aluminum- mixture of vermilion powder
and shellac b/s other layout solution corrode
the maximum.
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• Casting and rolled steel- merely chalking
fig. typical layout
the surface.
Before applying layout dye, ensure that all grease
and oil has been cleaned from the work surface.
Otherwise the dye will not adhere properly.

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 Layout Fluids

• Layout very important to accuracy of

finished product
• Surface of metal coated with layout
solution to make layout lines visible
• Surface should be clean and free of
grease

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 Types of fluids

• Layout dye or bluing

– Most commonly used
– Available as a liquid but requires clean
grease free surface
– Quick-drying, good sharp background
– Copper sulfate solution can be used for
ferrous metals
– Aluminum uses vermilion powder and
shellac
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Reference edges and lines
In order for laying out to give best results, it usually must be
done from finished edges or datum checking edges and/or
surfaces for exactness is done using squares .

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Permanent layout
After the layout lines have been scribed on the work piece, they
should be permanent marked by means of prick punch marks
along the layout.
Doing this will ensure the visibility of the lay out line
location. Otherwise, the line be rubbed off through handling.
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 STEPS IN MAKING A LAYOUT
 Planning before beginning any layout is one of the most important
steps. Each job may require different layout tools depending on the
accuracy needed; however, there are certain procedures which should
be followed in any layout. Figure shows a typical layout.

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• Study the shop drawing or blueprint carefully before you cut off
the stock. Allow enough material to square the ends if required.

• Remove all oil and grease from the work surface and apply layout
dye.

• Locate and scribe a reference or base line. All the other

measurements should be made from this. If the work piece already
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has one true edge, it can be used in place of the reference line.
• Using the base line as a reference line, locate and scribe
all center lines for each circle, radius, or arc.
• Mark the points where the center lines intersect using a
sharp prick punch.
• Scribe all circles, radii, and arcs using the divider or

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trammel.
• Using the correct type protractor, locate and scribe all
straight and angular lines.
• Scribe all lines for internal openings.
• All layout lines should be clean, sharp, and fine.
• Reapply layout dye to all messy, wide, or incorrect 91

lines and rescribe.

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End of Chapter Two

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