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 Stars and Nebulae
Nicholas Faulkner

Following the Next Generation Science Standards focusing on the

universe and its stars, this enlightening book delves deep into the
scientific study of stars, analyzing their behavior and composition, as well
as their life cycles. Readers will learn fascinating facts, such as just how
big they can get, how many there are in the universe, and the spectacular
fashion in which some die. Readers can explore the universe of nebulae,
the interstellar dust from which stars are born. Treat your star-gazers to a
terrific guide.

2
3
Published in 2019 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with
The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.
29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010

Copyright © 2019 by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are
registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rosen Publishing materials copyright © 2019 The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

Distributed exclusively by Rosen Publishing.

To see additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, go to rosenpublishing.com.

Britannica Educational Publishing

J.E. Luebering: Executive Director, Core Editorial
Andrea R. Field: Managing Editor, Compton’s by Britannica

Rosen Publishing
Nicholas Faulkner: Editor
Brian Garvey: Series Designer / Book Layout
Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager
Sherri Jackson: Photo Researcher

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Faulkner, Nicholas, editor. | Gregersen, Erik, editor.

Title: Stars and nebulae / edited by Nicholas Faulkner and Erik Gregersen.
Description: New York : Britannica Educational Publishing, in association with Rosen Educational Services, 2019 | Series:
The universe and our place in it | Audience: Grades 7–12 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018007396| ISBN 9781508106036 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Stars—Juvenile literature. | Nebulae—Juvenile literature.
Classification: LCC QB801.7 .S7245 2018 | DDC 523.8—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018007396

Manufactured in the United States of America

Photo credits: Cover (top), p. 1 Carlos Fernandez/Moment/Getty Images; cover (bottom) Outer Space/Shutterstock.com;
back cover © iStockphoto.com/lvcandy; pp. 6–7 Hubble SM4 ERO Team—ESA/NASA; pp. 10–11 The Hubble Heritage
Team (AURA/STScI/NASA); p. 13 Kean Collection/Getty Images; pp. 17, 25, 29, 33, 47, 49, 65 Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc.; pp. 20, 44 ESA/Hubble/NASA; pp. 31, 98, 100 NASA; pp. 35, 46, 52 Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint
project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by NASA and the National Science Foundation; pp. 38–39 NASA, ESA, H. Bond (STScI), and M.
Barstow (University of Leicester); pp. 56–57 Stocktrek Images/Getty Images; p. 68 A. Nota-ESA/NASA; p. 79 © Merriam-
Webster Inc.; p. 81 Smithsonian Institution/Science Source; p. 84 NASA/CXC/PSU/G.Pavlov et al.; p. 91 NASA/Science
Source; p. 94 NASA, ESA, HEIC, and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA); p. 102 Stock Montage/Archive
Photos/Getty Images; p. 103 Print Collector/Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p. 105 Paul Fearn/Alamy Stock Photo; interior
pages background (blue triangles) DiamondGraphics/Shutterstock.com.

4
 CONTENTS

Introduction

CHAPTER 1
The Nature of Stars
Observing the Motions of Stars
Measuring Brightness and Distance
Colour, Temperature, and Composition
The Sizes of Stars
A Look at the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram
How Stars Shine
The Masses of Stars
The Variety of Star Sizes
Stars Like the Sun
How Many Stars Are There?
Understanding Spectral Analysis
Calculating the Distances of Stars
Our Nearest Stars
The Sun

CHAPTER 2
Understanding Star Clusters
Globular Clusters

5
 Open Clusters
OB and T Associations
The Nature of Star Clusters
Finding Clusters in External Galaxies

CHAPTER 3
Super Stars
White Dwarfs
Neutron Stars
Black Holes
Stephen Hawking’s Work on Black Holes

CHAPTER 4
Nebulae
The Different Classes of Nebulae
The Historical Study of Nebulae
The Work of the Herschels
Studying Nebulae with Photography and Spectroscopy
The Chemical and Physical Nature of Nebulae
The Dust of Interstellar Space
Turbulence in Nebulae
The Galactic Magnetic Field

Conclusion

Glossary

6
Bibliography

Index

7
 INTRODUCTION

M any ancient cultures believed that the stars were lights attached to a
huge dome (the sky) over Earth. The stars maintained fixed positions
relative to each other as they moved across the heavens, as if the sky
dome were rotating around Earth.

Approximately 100,000 stars at the core of the globular Omega Centauri cluster, as
captured by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope.

Ancient people imagined patterns in the stars and grouped them into
constellations representing various animals, people, mythological heroes, and
even everyday objects. Some cultures attributed godlike powers to the stars and
worshipped them. Many also thought that the motions of the heavenly bodies
corresponded to or foretold events on Earth. This belief, shared by many

8
cultures, became the basis of astrology.
More practically, the motions of the stars (and planets) during the year
became the basis for calendars, which were crucial in the development of
agriculture. Also, the stars became valuable tools for navigation, especially for
seafaring peoples such as the Phoenicians and Pacific Islanders.
In the last century, scientists determined what stars are—enormous balls of
incandescent gas, powered by nuclear fusion reactions in their cores. However,
to just say that stars are balls of gas that shine through the workings of their
internal energy does not do justice to their full nature and complexity. Not all
stars are like our Sun. Some stars are massive giants doomed to burn away in
merely millions of years. Others will have violent and dramatic fates as
supernovae, white dwarfs, neutron stars, or even black holes.
When a star “goes supernova,” considerable amounts of its matter, equaling
the material of several Suns, may be blasted into space with such a burst of
energy as to enable the exploding star to outshine its entire home galaxy.
Supernovae are characterized by a tremendous, rapid brightening lasting for a
few weeks, followed by a slow dimming. A supernova explosion is a cataclysmic
event for a star, one that essentially ends its active (i.e., energy-generating)
lifetime. Supernovae release many of the heavier elements that make up the
components of the solar system, including Earth, into the interstellar medium.
White dwarfs have a mass similar to that of the Sun, but with a radius
comparable to that of Earth, making them extremely dense. White dwarfs have
average densities approaching 1,000,000 times that of water.
Neutron stars are any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought
to be composed primarily of neutrons. Their masses range between 1 and 2 times
that of the Sun. Having so much mass packed within a ball on the order of 20 km
(12 miles) in diameter, a neutron star has a density that can reach that of nuclear
values, which is roughly 100 trillion (1014) times the average density of solar
matter or of water. This approximates the density inside the atomic nucleus, and
in some ways a neutron star can be conceived of as a gigantic nucleus.
A black hole can be formed by the death of a massive star. When such a star
has exhausted the internal thermonuclear fuels in its core at the end of its life, the
core becomes unstable and gravitationally collapses inward upon itself, and the
star’s outer layers are blown away. The crushing weight of constituent matter

9
falling in from all sides compresses the dying star to a point of zero volume and
infinite density called the singularity, around which nothing, not even light, can
escape.
Nebulae are clouds of gas and dust that occur in the space between the
stars. A nebula is thus made up of the interstellar medium. Some nebulae give
birth to new stars, and dying stars expel nebulae. The Sun was formed roughly
4.5 billion years ago inside a nebula that was produced from a supernova.
For thousands of years, people have gazed at the seemingly infinite number
of stars in the night sky. For most of this time, they could only guess about the
nature of these pinpoints of light, often making them objects of wonder, worship,
comfort, or fear.

10
 CHAPTER 1

T HE N ATURE OF S TARS

I n the observable universe, it’s estimated that there are roughly as many stars
as there are grains of sand on all of the beaches on Earth. There are all
different types of stars of all different sizes and ages. Throughout the Milky
Way Galaxy (and even near the Sun itself), astronomers have discovered stars
that are well evolved or even approaching extinction, or both, as well as
occasional stars that must be very young or still in the process of formation.
Evolutionary effects on these stars are not negligible, even for a middle-aged star
such as the Sun. More massive stars must display more spectacular effects
because the rate of conversion of mass into energy is higher. While the Sun
produces energy at the rate of about two ergs per gram per second, a more
luminous main-sequence star can release energy at a rate some 1,000 times
greater. Consequently, effects that require billions of years to be easily
recognized in the Sun might occur within a few million years in highly luminous
and massive stars. A supergiant star such as Antares, a bright main-sequence star
such as Rigel, or even a more modest star such as Sirius cannot have endured as
long as the Sun has endured. These stars must have been formed relatively
recently.

11
 Left: the Sun. Hotter areas of the Sun appear in bright white. Right: limb darkening
on the disk of the Sun. Mercury can be seen as a small black dot in the lower middle
of the solar disk.

While roots can be traced back through Arab and Greek contributions,
modern astronomy started with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus in Poland in the
early 16th century. Copernicus concluded that the Sun, not Earth, was the center
of the universe and that Earth was a planet orbiting the Sun. This presented
problems, though. One such problem was that if Earth moved, the stars—
presumed to be on a large, fixed sphere—should appear to observers on Earth to
shift back and forth as Earth orbits the Sun once a year. No such shift, called
parallax, was seen. This meant that either Copernicus was wrong or that the stars
were so distant (at least hundreds of times more distant than Saturn) that the shift
could not be detected. The latter turned out to be the case.
The implication that the stars were so far away led some, such as the Italian
scholar Giordano Bruno, to suggest that stars were in fact like the Sun, but so
distant that they looked dim. He believed that the stars could even have their
own planets. Rather than being on a sphere, they were scattered through infinite
space. For this and (mainly) for various theological reasons, the Roman Catholic
Church burned Bruno at the stake in 1600.
In 1572 the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe saw a new star appear in the

12
heavens, only to have it fade away within weeks. Ancient authorities had
claimed that the stars were eternal and unchanging. Starting in 1609, Galileo
Galilei made observations of the heavens with telescopes. His discoveries
generally supported the Copernican theory. Additionally, his telescopes revealed
great numbers of stars invisible to the unaided eye. This undermined a popular
belief that stars were created solely for the benefit of humans. After this,
scientists began to think of stars as natural, physical objects, rather than as gods,
mystical beings, or portents. Isaac Newton’s work in physics in the late 17th
century, combined with advances in instrumentation and the study of light, paved
the way for great advances in the understanding of stars.

13
Tycho Brahe.

14
 OBSERVING THE MOTIONS OF STARS
Even casual looks at the sky a few hours apart show the stars moving westward
during the night. More careful observation shows that they move as if attached to
a large sphere surrounding Earth. The sphere’s axis of rotation passes through
the North and South poles, so that Polaris (the “North Star”)—which lies very
close to this axis—appears to barely move. This imaginary sphere rotates once
every 23 hours and 56 minutes. The 4-minute difference between this rate and
the 24-hour day accumulates to 2 hours per month and a whole day in a year. For
this reason, the positions of the constellations, as seen at a certain time of night,
can be identified with the seasons. For example, Orion culminates (reaches its
highest point in the sky) at about midnight in December, but by March it does so
at about 6:00 pm. In June this happens at about noon, so that it cannot be seen at
night. By September it culminates at about 6:00 am. In December it is back
where it started.
An observer at the Equator eventually gets to see all the stars, by waiting all
night or all year. An observer at the North Pole sees only the same stars all the
time, and these stars appear to go around in horizontal circles. At the South Pole
a completely different set of stars is seen. In the midlatitudes there are some stars
that never rise, some that never set, and a large number that rise and set daily.
Australians get to see Crux (the Southern Cross) but never the Big Dipper.
Observers in the northern United States see the Big Dipper but never the
Southern Cross. In both countries Orion appears half the time. These motions are
due to Earth’s daily rotation on its axis, combined with its yearly revolution
around the Sun.
Note that the constellations maintain their shapes as the stars appear to
move in lock step. The individual stars actually move independently, however.
Their very gradual apparent motions will, after hundreds of thousands of years,
make the current constellations unrecognizable. Astronomers call these
individual apparent motions “proper motion.” A star’s proper motion, combined
with its motion toward or away from the observer, is used to determine the star’s
actual velocity, relative to the other stars. This speed can be hundreds of miles
per second. The distances to stars are so great, however, that these motions are
not noticeable to the naked eye over a human lifetime.

15
 MEASURING BRIGHTNESS AND
DISTANCE
Stars vary considerably in how bright they appear from Earth. Ancient
astronomers devised a rating scale for apparent magnitude, or brightness, that is
believed to date back to the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the 2nd century
BCE. In general, the brighter the star, the lower the magnitude. On this simple
scale, the brightest stars were ascribed a magnitude of 1, and the dimmest 6. Not
all stars given a particular magnitude were of exactly the same brightness, but
the scale was useful and has survived (with modifications) to this day.
Modern instruments determine brightness far more precisely. It was found
that magnitude 1 stars are roughly 2.5 times as bright as those of magnitude 2;
magnitude 2 are about 2.5 times as bright as magnitude 3; and so on. Some stars
are dimmer than can be seen with the naked eye and have magnitudes of 7 or
more. The faintest stars detected by the largest telescopes are about magnitude
30. Others are brighter than the typical “bright” stars given magnitudes of 1 by
Hipparchus, some even having negative magnitudes on this scale. The brightest
object in the heavens as seen from Earth—the Sun—has an apparent magnitude
of −26.7.
Of course, how bright a star looks depends on its distance from the
observer, so distance must be determined in order to learn the true brightness of
stars. In Copernicus’ time, the annual shift of the apparent positions of the stars
could not be seen. Even early telescopes were incapable of detecting it.
However, in 1838 Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel used a large telescope to detect the
annual parallax of what turned out to be a relatively nearby star: 61 Cygni.

16
By measuring a star’s six-month change in position as shown and the known space
across Earth’s orbit, the distance to star X can be computed.

This provided confirmation of Earth’s motion around the Sun and also

17
made possible the first calculation of the distance to a star. Using trigonometry
and an earlier calculation of the distance to the Sun, Bessel found 61 Cygni to be
about 61 trillion miles (98 trillion kilometers) from Earth. A more convenient
unit of distance is the parsec, which is the distance of a star showing a parallax
of one arc second (1/3,600 of a degree) when the observer moves one
astronomical unit, which is the average distance from Earth to the Sun—about
93 million miles (150 million kilometers). Another unit is the light-year, the
distance light travels in one year—about 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion
kilometers). One parsec equals about 3.26 light-years. Bessel’s distance to 61
Cygni in parsecs was about 3.19, or about 10.4 light-years. (Modern
measurements show it slightly farther, at about 11.4 light-years.) The nearest star
to Earth other than the Sun is Proxima Centauri, a dim companion of the brighter
pair Alpha Centauri A and B. Proxima Centauri is some 1.29 parsecs (4.2 light-
years) from Earth.
Once distances to the nearer stars were known, it became possible to
compare the actual brightness of stars. One measure of this is absolute
magnitude—how bright a star would appear as seen from a distance of 10
parsecs, or 32.6 light-years. Using this scheme, the Sun’s −26.7 apparent
magnitude would diminish by 31.5 magnitudes if it were moved out to 10
parsecs, rendering an absolute magnitude of 4.8. This means that it would be
only dimly visible to the unaided eye. On the other hand, the star Deneb, with an
apparent magnitude of about 1.3, would appear 8.4 magnitudes brighter, or about
−7.1, if it were brought from its actual distance of about 500 parsecs to only 10
parsecs. This means that Deneb is actually 60,000 times brighter than the Sun. If
it were placed where the Sun is, it would vaporize Earth and the other inner
planets.
Luminosity is another measurement used to describe the actual brightness
of stars. In astronomy, luminosity is defined as the amount of light an object
emits in a given amount of time. Unlike magnitude, luminosity does not depend
on the distance between an object and its observer; thus it is an absolute measure
of radiant power. Luminosity is usually expressed in terms of solar luminosities.
One solar luminosity is equal to the luminosity of the Sun, or 3.85 × 1033 ergs
per second. The luminosity of the globular star cluster M13 is equal to 300,000;
that is, it is 300,000 times greater than that of the Sun. The most luminous stars

18
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