Earthquakes are the result of stress accumulation in
Earth’s crust occurs along fault lines due to tectonic
plate movement and sudden elastic rebound along
faults, governed by rock mechanics and frictional laws.
The released energy travels outwards from the point of
rupture (the focus) in all directions as seismic waves.
These waves cause the Earth's surface to shake, which
is what we feel as an earthquake.
The origin point underground is called the focus or
hypocenter. The point on the Earth's surface directly
above the focus is called the epicenter
A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves caused by a
sudden displacement of a huge volume of water,
usually due to an undersea earthquake, volcanic
eruption, landslide, or meteorite impact.
The word tsunami comes from Japanese:“harbor
waves,” because they become most destructive near
coastlines Seismic Triggering (Tectonic Plate Movement
Most tsunamis originate from subduction zones, where
one tectonic plate slides beneath another.
A sudden displacement of the seafloor during an
undersea earthquake (usually magnitude ≥ 7.0) pushes
an enormous volume of water upward, creating waves.
Tsunami energy can travel across entire ocean basins
with little loss
Volcanism is primarily driven by mantle convection and
tectonic plate interactions (convergent and divergent
boundaries).
At convergent boundaries, subducting plates melt and
at divergent boundaries, plates pull apart
Silica-rich magma traps gases and low silica rich magma
allows gas to escape
Formation of magma
Deep within the Earth, high temperature (700-1300 °C)
and pressure causes parts of the mantle and crust to
melt, forming magma.
Wildfires occur when fuel, oxygen, and a heat source
combine to start combustion; once burning, rising hot
air creates convection currents
Wind supply more oxygen and spread flames rapidly,
making the fire self-sustaining
Wildfires are rapid oxidation reactions. Produces large
amounts of heat, light, carbon dioxide, and water
vapour.
Wildfires are driven by the chemical reaction of
combustion. When vegetation (fuel) reaches its ignition
temperature (~300°C or higher), it releases volatile
gases that react with oxygen to produce flames, heat,
and smoke.
Heat Transfer - Wildfires spread through three
processes:
Radiation: Heat radiates outward,
preheating vegetation ahead of the fire.
Convection: Rising hot air creates
strong updrafts and fire-driven winds.
Conduction: Heat moves through
solid material like tree bark, igniting inner layers.
Rotating air of an updraft , meets the rotating air of a
downdraft, which has turned upward.
Strength: Measured on EF scale ,Speed: Winds can
exceed 480 km/h
Tornadoes form when warm, moist air rises and
condenses, releasing latent heat which interact with
wind shear and pressure differences to create a rapidly
rotating column of air.
Energy Source – Tornadoes derive Energy from the
thunderstorm’s latent heat release (from condensation
of water vapor) and the massive inflow of moist air at
the surface.
Conservation of Angular Momentum As the rotating
column of air narrows due to the storm’s updraft, it
spins faster (like a figure skater pulling in their arms).
This intensifies the rotation.
Floods are part of the water cycle when precipitation
exceeds the land’s capacity to absorb or carry water
Modern science uses equations, models, and satellite
data to predict them, but climate change is increasing
their unpredictability and intensity.
Runoff & Infiltration Physics -Governed by Darcy’s Law
(movement of water through porous media), once the
soil saturation point is exceeded, water becomes
surface runoff
River Hydraulics – Based on continuity equation (Q = A
× V), when discharge exceeds channel capacity, rivers
overflow, leading to flooding.
Hydro-Climatic Intensification – A Warmer atmosphere
holds ~7% more water vapor per 1°C rise (Clausius-
Clapeyron relation), intensifying the hydrological cycle.
This causes extreme precipitation, flooding, and
stronger cyclones.
Cryospheric Feedbacks – Rapid glacial retreat and
permafrost thaw accelerate sea-level rise and
destabilize ecosystems, amplifying coastal flooding and
storm surges.
Biosphere-Atmosphere Interactions Deforestation,
land-use change, and urbanization reduce albedo, soil
moisture retention, and carbon sequestration,
magnifying disaster risks such as wildfires, landslides,
and heatwaves.
