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 HISTORY STRATEGIC PLANNING, AND OUTSOURCING

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 Source: URBAN WATER SUPPLY HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 1
URBAN WATER
INFRASTRUCTURE:
A HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Larry W. Mays
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

Attention to water supply and drainage is the sine

qua non for urbanization, and hence for that human
condition we call civilization. In fact, development
of water supply, waste removal, and drainage made
dense settlement possible. Crouch (1993)
Cities are systems within systems of cities.
Berry (1964), given in
Lees and Hohenberg (1988)

1.1 CITIES AND WATER KNOWLEDGE

1.1.1 The Beginning

Humans have spent most of their history as hunting and food gathering beings.
Only in the last 9000 to 10,000 years have we discovered how to raise crops and
tame animals. Such revolution probably first took place in the hills to the north of
present-day Iraq and Syria. From there the agricultural revolution spread to the
Nile and Indus valleys. During this time of agricultural revolution, living in per-
manent villages took the place of a wandering existence. About 6000 to 7000
years ago, farming villages of the Near and Middle East became cities. The first
successful efforts to control the flow of water were made in Mesopotamia and
Egypt. Remains of these prehistoric irrigation canals still exist.
About 5000 years ago the science of astronomy began and observation of other
natural phenomena was leading to knowledge about water resulting in advances

1.3
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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.4 HISTORY, PLANNING, OUTSOURCING

for control and use. In the third millennium B.C. time period the Indus civilization
had bathrooms in houses and sewers in streets. The Mesopotamians were not far
behind (Adams, 1981). In the second millennium B.C. the Minoan civilization on
Crete had running water and flushing latrines (Evans, 1964). The Minoan and
Mycenaean settlements used cisterns 1000 years before the classical and
Hellenistic Greek cities. Water runoff from rooftops was stored in the cisterns
which supplied water for the households through the dry summers of the
Mediterranean. Between the time of the fall of the Minoan civilization and before
the (flowering) growth of the Greek culture (1100–700 B.C.), the Aegean societies
were in disarray.
Around 3000 B.C. the first true urban settlements appeared in ancient
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. These settlements (societies) had elab-
orate religious, political, and military hierarchies. The areas devoted to the activi-
ties of the elite were often highly planned and regular in form, whereas the
residential areas often grew by a slow process of accretion resulting in complex
and irregular patterns. Greek cities did not follow a single pattern, but grew from
old villages. Figure 1.1 shows locations of selected Greek sites, some of which are
discussed in this chapter.
In consolidating their empire, the Romans engaged in extensive building of
cities. Rome resulted from centuries of irregular growth with particular temple and
public districts that were highly planned. The Roman military and colonial towns
were laid out in a variation of the grid. As an example, the layout of London, Paris,
and many European cities resulted from these Roman origins. Because cities
needed a healthy water supply, locations along rivers and streams or underground
watercourses were always favored. When cities were small, obtaining clean water
and disposing of wastes was not a major problem; however, as cities grew to larger
populations and much higher densities there was a much greater need for public
infrastructure. Figure 1.2 illustrates the extent of the Roman Empire with selected
sites, some of which are discussed in this chapter.
Historically, settlements and communities relied on natural sources to obtain
their water. Supplying large quantities such as for fountains (e.g., the Treni
Fountain in Rome) was a luxury few communities and states could afford before
the Roman era. The most common method of collecting water was saving rain-
water in rooftop reservoirs and cisterns. This method was used by the Minoans and
Mycenaeans and later by the classical and Hellenistic Greeks, and then the
Romans. In fact cisterns are still used throughout the world for storing rainwater
for various purposes and as the most common method of providing water at loca-
tions without adequate or safe on-site supplies. Before running-water supplies
were made possible by conduits and aqueducts, many Roman cities relied upon
cisterns and storage tanks. Cisterns ranged from individual use for houses to com-
munal cisterns. Probably the most impressive and immense cistern ever built by
the Romans was the Piscina Mirabilis near Pozzuoli in the bay of Naples, Italy.

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

FIGURE 1.1 Map of selected ancient Greek sites. (Crouch, 1993)

1.5

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.6 HISTORY, PLANNING, OUTSOURCING

FIGURE 1.2 Map of sites in the Roman Empire. (Garraty and Gay, 1972)

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 1.7

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.8 HISTORY, PLANNING, OUTSOURCING

Table 1.1 presents a chronology of water knowledge, from Crouch (1993), who
points out that traditional water knowledge relied on geologic and meteorologic
observation plus social consensus and administrative organization, particularly in
the ancient Greek world.

1.1.2 Contrast of Past and Present

Figure 1.3 shows the functional components of a modern-day water utility, and
Fig. 1.4 shows the hierarchical relationship of components, subcomponents, and
sub-subcomponents for a modern-day-water distribution system. In comparison
Fig. 1.5 shows the functional components of a Roman urban water distribution
system based upon the Pompeii system. This chapter attempts to provide an
insight into the Greek and Roman era water systems to provide a better under-
standing of our present-day urban water supply systems. A comparison of the
ancient and the modern-day aqueduct systems is shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7.
Figure 1.6 shows the Central Arizona Project aqueduct through a residential area

TABLE 1.1 Chronology of Water Knowledge

Prehistoric period Springs

3d–2d millennium B.C. Cisterns
3d millennium B.C.* Dams
3d millennium B.C. Wells
Probably very early (?) Reuse of excrement as fertilizer
2d millennium B.C.* Gravity flow supply pipes or channels and drains, pressure
pipes (subsequently forgotten)
8th–6th century B.C. Long-distance water supply lines with tunnels and bridges,
as well as intervention in and harnessing of
karst water systems
6th century B.C. at latest Public as well as private bathing facilities, consisting of
bathtubs or showers, footbaths, washbasins, latrines or
toilets, laundry and dishwashing facilities
6th century B.C. at latest Utilization of definitely two and probably three qualities of
water: potable, subpotable, and nonpotable including
irrigation using storm runoff, probably combined with
wastewaters
6th–3d centuries B.C. Pressure pipes and siphon systems
*Indicates an element discovered, probably forgotten, and then rediscovered later.
(?) indicates an educated guess.
Source: Crouch, 1993.

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 1.9

FIGURE 1.3 Functional components of a modern-day water utility. (Cullinane, 1989)

in Scottsdale, Arizona. In contrast Fig. 1.7 shows a Roman aqueduct bridge

located in Izmir, Turkey.

1.2 ROMAN PREDECESSORS

1.2.1 The Minoans

Knossos, located approximately 5 kilometers (km) from Herakleion, the modern

capital of Crete, was one of the most ancient and most unique cities of the Aegean
region and Europe. Knossos was first inhabited shortly after 6000 B.C., and within
3000 years it had become the largest neolithic (circa 5700–28 B.C.) settlement in
the Aegean world. During the bronze age (circa 2800–1100 B.C.) the Minoan civ-
ilization developed and reached its culmination as the first Greek cultural miracle
of the Aegean world. During the neopalatial period (1700–1400 B.C.), Knossos
was at the height of its splendor. The city extended over an area of 75,000 to
125,000 square meters (m2) and had an estimated population in the order of tens
of thousands of inhabitants. The water supply system at Knossos was most inter-
esting. An aqueduct supplied water through tubular conduits from the Knunavoi
and Archanes regions and branched out into the city and the palace. Figure 1.8
shows the type of pressure conduits used within the palace for water distribution.

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

FIGURE 1.4 Hierarchical relationship of components, subcomponents, and sub-subcomponents for a water
distribution system. (Cullinane, 1989)

1.10
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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 1.11

Aqueduct

Castellum

Head Water
Domestic Head
18 m tower 6m
supply

FIGURE 1.5 Functional components of a Roman urban water distribution system based upon
the Pompeii system. (Hodge, 1992)

FIGURE 1.6 Central Arizona Project (CAP) aqueduct through a residential area in Scottsdale,
Arizona. (Courtesy of Central Arizona Project)

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.12 HISTORY, PLANNING, OUTSOURCING

FIGURE 1.7 Roman aqueduct bridge in Izmir, Turkey. (Photo by Koksal B. Celik)

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 1.13

FIGURE 1.8 Water distribution pipe in Knossos, Crete, built around 2000 B.C. by the Minoans.
(Photo by Larry W. Mays and copyright by Larry W. Mays)

Unfortunately, around 1450 B.C. the Mycenean palace was destroyed by an earth-
quake and fire, as were all the palatial cities of Crete.

1.2.2 The Greeks

From the viewpoint of water supply in ancient Greece there are two periods before
the Hellenistic period, the archaic period and the classical period, during which
time nothing built could compare with the grandiosity of the Roman aqueducts.
The city of the archaic and classical Greek periods typically had a spring at its cen-
ter from which it grew, without any aqueducts, at least in comparison to what the
Romans built. Terra-cotta pipelines probably were the usual method of conveying
water during the classical Greek period. These terra-cotta pipes [20 to 25 cen-
timeters (cm) in diameter] fit into each other (see Fig. 1.9). Cities were served by
fountain(s) in central location(s) receiving water either from a local source or by
a conduit made of terra-cotta pipes. Pipes were laid along the bottom of trenches
or tunnels, allowing for both protection and access. Two or more pipes in parallel
were used depending upon the flow to be conveyed.
During the Hellenistic period the political and economic situation changed,
leading to much more architectural development and urban beautification, of
which aqueducts played a major role. The progress in science during the

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.14 HISTORY, PLANNING, OUTSOURCING

FIGURE 1.9 Terra-cotta pipes found in Ephesus, Turkey. (Photo by Koksal B. Celik)

Hellenistic period provided a new technical expertise. Hellenistic aqueducts usu-

ally used pipes, as compared to the Roman masonry conduit. The Hellenistic peo-
ple did not have the Roman’s engineering skill especially in the use of the arch and
the building of aqueduct bridges. Greek and Hellenistic aqueducts generally fol-
lowed the contours of the land, without using any major engineering structures.
The one exception was the use of the siphon, which was the method used by the
Hellenists to convey water across valleys. Locations of siphons included Ephesus,
Methumna, Laodicea (see the parallel siphons in Fig. 1.10), Pergamon, and many
others. There are difficulties in dating these siphons, but they may be of the early
Roman or Hellenistic period and obviously provided models for the later Roman
work. Hellenistic pipelines were built of stone (see Fig. 1.11) or terra-cotta (see
Fig. 1.9) whereas the Romans used pipes made of lead (see Fig. 1.12).

Acropolis. The Acropolis at Athens, Greece, had been the focus of settlement
starting with the earliest times. Not only its defensive capabilities, but also its
water supply, made it the logical location for groups who dominated the region.
The Acropolis is located on a rock outcropping and has naturally occurring water.
This and the ability of its inhabitants to save rain and spring water resulted in a
number of diverse water sources being available, including cisterns, wells, and
springs. Figure 1.13 shows the shaft of one of the archaic water holders.

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 1.15

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 1.10 Siphon at Laodicea, Turkey. (a) View of the two parallel siphon pipes, and (b)
closer view of one of the siphons. (Photos by Koksal B. Celik)

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.16 HISTORY, PLANNING, OUTSOURCING

FIGURE 1.11 Stone pipes in Ankara, Turkey. (Photo by Koksal B. Celik)

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 URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

URBAN WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 1.17

FIGURE 1.12 Lead pipe with marmor joint elements. Pipe is located in the Ephesus Museum.
(Photo by Koksal B. Celik)

FIGURE 1.13 Shaft of a water holder at the Acropolis at Athens, Greece. (Photo by Larry W.
Mays and copyright by Larry W. Mays)

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