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Mam_FM_ff.qxd 8/11/05 8:57 PM Page ii

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file

Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horton

Editorial Assistant: Richard Virginia
Executive Managing Editor: Vince O’Brien
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Art Director: Jayne Conte
Cover Designer: Bruce Kenselaar
Art Editor: Greg Dulles
Manufacturing Manager: Alexis Heydt-Long
Manufacturing Buyer: Lisa McDowell
Senior Marketing Manager: Holly Stark

© 2006 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall
Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Pearson Prentice HallTM is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc.

The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book.
These efforts include the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs
to determine their effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind,
expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation contained in this
book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential
damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these
programs.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 0-13-147714-5

Pearson Education Ltd., London

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Mam_FM_ff.qxd 8/11/05 8:57 PM Page iii

CONTENTS

Preface xiv

ONE
Materials Engineering Concepts 1

1.1 Economic Factors 2

1.2 Mechanical Properties 3
1.2.1 • Loading Conditions 4
1.2.2 • Stress–Strain Relations 5
1.2.3 • Elastic Behavior 6
1.2.4 • Elastoplastic Behavior 8
1.2.5 • Work and Energy 12
1.2.6 • Time-Dependent Response 13
1.2.7 • Rheological Models 15
1.2.8 • Temperature and Time Effects 18
1.2.9 • Failure and Safety 19
1.3 Nonmechanical Properties 22
1.3.1 • Density and Unit Weight 22
1.3.2 • Thermal Expansion 23
1.3.3 • Surface Characteristics 25
1.4 Production and Construction 25
1.5 Aesthetic Characteristics 26
1.6 Material Variability 27
1.6.1 • Sampling 28
1.6.2 • Normal Distribution 29
1.6.3 • Control Charts 29
1.6.4 • Experimental Error 32
1.7 Laboratory Measuring Devices 32
1.7.1 • Dial Gauge 33
1.7.2 • Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 34
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iv Contents

1.7.3 • Strain Gauge 37

1.7.4 • Proving Ring 38
1.7.5 • Load Cell 39
Summary 40
Questions and Problems 41
1.8 References 50

TWO
Nature of Materials 52

2.1 Basic Materials Concepts 52

2.1.1 • Electron Configuration 52
2.1.2 • Bonding 55
2.1.3 • Material Classification by Bond Type 58
2.2 Metallic Materials 59
2.2.1 • Lattice Structure 59
2.2.2 • Lattice Defects 64
2.2.3 • Grain Structure 65
2.2.4 • Alloys 67
2.2.5 • Phase Diagrams 68
2.2.6 • Combined Effects 74
2.3 Inorganic Solids 74
2.4 Organic Solids 77
2.4.1 • Polymer Development, Structure, and Cross-Linking 78
2.4.2 • Melting and Glass Transition Temperature 79
2.4.3 • Mechanical Properties 81
Summary 82
Questions and Problems 83
2.5 References 85

THREE
Steel 86

3.1 Steel Production 87

3.2 Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram 90
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Contents v

3.3 Heat Treatment of Steel 94

3.3.1 • Annealing 94
3.3.2 • Normalizing 95
3.3.3 • Hardening 95
3.3.4 • Tempering 96
3.3.5 • Example of Heat Treatment 96
3.4 Steel Alloys 96
3.5 Structural Steel 98
3.5.1 • Structural Steel Grades 98
3.5.2 • Sectional Shapes 101
3.5.3 • Specialty Steels in Structural Applications 102
3.6 Fastening Products 107
3.7 Reinforcing Steel 107
3.8 Mechanical Testing of Steel 110
3.8.1 • Tension Test 110
3.8.2 • Torsion Test 117
3.8.3 • Charpy V Notch Impact Test 119
3.8.4 • Bend Test 122
3.8.5 • Hardness Test 122
3.8.6 • Ultrasonic Testing 124
3.9 Welding 125
3.10 Steel Corrosion 127
3.10.1 • Methods for Corrosion Resistance 128
Summary 129
Questions and Problems 130
3.11 References 136

FOUR
Aluminum 138

4.1 Aluminum Production 140

4.2 Aluminum Metallurgy 142
4.2.1 • Alloy Designation System 144
4.2.2 • Temper Treatments 145
4.3 Aluminum Testing and Properties 146
4.4 Welding and Fastening 153
4.5 Corrosion 154
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vi Contents

Summary 154
Questions and Problems 154
4.6 References 158

FIVE
Aggregates 159

5.1 Aggregate Sources 159

5.2 Geological Classification 160
5.3 Evaluation of Aggregate Sources 161
5.4 Aggregate Uses 162
5.5 Aggregate Properties 163
5.5.1 • Particle Shape and Surface Texture 163
5.5.2 • Soundness and Durability 165
5.5.3 • Toughness, Hardness, and Abrasion Resistance 166
5.5.4 • Absorption 167
5.5.5 • Specific Gravity 169
5.5.6 • Bulk Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate 171
5.5.7 • Strength and Modulus 172
5.5.8 • Gradation and Maximum Size 172
5.5.9 • Deleterious Substances in Aggregate 189
5.5.10 • Alkali–Aggregate Reactivity 190
5.5.11 • Affinity for Asphalt 191
5.6 Handling Aggregates 192
5.6.1 • Sampling Aggregates 192
Summary 194
Questions and Problems 194
5.7 References 200

SIX
Portland Cement 201

6.1 Portland Cement Production 201

6.2 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement 202

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Contents vii

6.3 Fineness of Portland Cement 203

6.4 Specific Gravity of Portland Cement 204
6.5 Hydration of Portland Cement 205
6.5.1 • Structure Development in Cement Paste 207
6.5.2 • Evaluation of Hydration Progress 207
6.6 Voids in Hydrated Cement 207
6.7 Properties of Hydrated Cement 209
6.7.1 • Setting 209
6.7.2 • Soundness 211
6.7.3 • Compressive Strength 212

6.8 Water–Cementitious Materials Ratio 212

6.9 Types of Portland Cement 213
6.9.1 • Standard Portland Cement Types 213
6.9.2 • Other Cement Types 216

6.10 Mixing Water 216

6.10.1 • Acceptable Criteria 217
6.10.2 • Disposal and Reuse of Concrete Wash Water 217

6.11 Admixtures for Concrete 219

6.11.1 • Air Entrainers 220
6.11.2 • Water Reducers 221
6.11.3 • Retarders 224
6.11.4 • Hydration-Control Admixtures 225
6.11.5 • Accelerators 225
6.11.6 • Supplementary Cementitious Admixtures 227
6.11.7 • Specialty Admixtures 229
Summary 230
Questions and Problems 230
6.12 References 234

SEVEN
Portland Cement Concrete 235

7.1 Proportioning of Concrete Mixes 235

7.1.1 • Basic Steps for Weight and Absolute Volume
Methods 236
7.1.2 • Mixing Concrete for Small Jobs 254
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viii Contents

7.2 Mixing, Placing, and Handling Fresh Concrete 256

7.2.1 • Ready-Mixed Concrete 256
7.2.2 • Mobile Batcher Mixed Concrete 257
7.2.3 • Depositing Concrete 257
7.2.4 • Pumped Concrete 260
7.2.5 • Vibration of Concrete 260
7.2.6 • Pitfalls and Precautions for Mixing Water 261
7.2.7 • Measuring Air Content in Fresh Concrete 262
7.2.8 • Spreading and Finishing Concrete 264
7.3 Curing Concrete 267
7.3.1 • Ponding or Immersion 268
7.3.2 • Spraying or Fogging 268
7.3.3 • Wet Coverings 268
7.3.4 • Impervious Papers or Plastic Sheets 270
7.3.5 • Membrane-forming Compounds 271
7.3.6 • Forms Left in Place 273
7.3.7 • Steam Curing 273
7.3.8 • Insulating Blankets or Covers 273
7.3.9 • Electrical, Hot Oil, and Infrared Curing 273
7.3.10 • Curing Period 273
7.4 Properties of Hardened Concrete 274
7.4.1 • Early Volume Change 274
7.4.2 • Creep Properties 275
7.4.3 • Permeability 275
7.4.4 • Stress–Strain Relation Ship 276
7.5 Testing of Hardened Concrete 278
7.5.1 • Compressive Strength Test 279
7.5.2 • Split-Tension Test 281
7.5.3 • Flexure Strength Test 282
7.5.4 • Rebound Hammer Test 283
7.5.5 • Penetration Resistance Test 284
7.5.6 • Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 285
7.5.7 • Maturity Test 285
7.6 Alternatives to Conventional Concrete 287
7.6.1 • Self-Consolidating Concrete 287
7.6.2 • Flowable Fill 288
7.6.3 • Shotcrete 290
7.6.4 • Lightweight Concrete 291
7.6.5 • Heavyweight Concrete 292
7.6.6 • High-Strength Concrete 293
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Contents ix

7.6.7 • Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete 294

7.6.8 • Polymers and Concrete 294
7.6.9 • Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 295
7.6.10 • Roller-Compacted Concrete 296
7.6.11 • High-Performance Concrete 296
Summary 298
Questions and Problems 298
7.7 References 303

EIGHT
Masonry 305

8.1 Masonry Units 305

8.1.1 • Concrete Masonry Units 306
8.1.2 • Clay Bricks 311
8.2 Mortar 314
8.3 Grout 314
8.4 Plaster 315
Summary 315
Questions and Problems 315
8.5 References 318

NINE
Asphalt Binders and Asphalt Mixtures 319

9.1 Types of Asphalt Products 322

9.2 Uses of Asphalt 323
9.3 Temperature Susceptibility of Asphalt 326
9.4 Chemical Properties of Asphalt 328
9.5 Superpave and Performance Grade Binders 329
9.6 Characterization of Asphalt 331
9.6.1 • Performance Grade Characterization Approach 331
9.6.2 • Performance Grade Binder Characterization 332
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x Contents

9.6.3 • Traditional Asphalt Characterization Tests 338

9.6.4 • Characterization of Emulsion and Cutback 338
9.7 Classification of Asphalt 340
9.7.1 • Asphalt Binders 340
9.7.2 • Asphalt Cutbacks 346
9.7.3 • Asphalt Emulsions 346
9.8 Asphalt Concrete 348
9.9 Asphalt Concrete Mix Design 348
9.9.1 • Specimen Preparation in the Laboratory 349
9.9.2 • Density and Voids Analysis 351
9.9.3 • Superpave Mix Design 355
9.9.4 • Superpave Simple Performance Tests (SPT) 364
9.9.5 • Marshall Method of Mix Design 367
9.9.6 • Hveem Method of Mix Design 375
9.9.7 • Evaluation of Moisture Susceptibility 376
9.10 Characterization of Asphalt Concrete 377
9.10.1 • Indirect Tensile Strength 378
9.10.2 • Diametral Tensile Resilient Modulus 378
9.10.3 • Freeze and Thaw Test 381
9.10.4 • Use of Rheological Models to Analyze Time-Dependent
Response 381
9.11 Asphalt Concrete Production 381
9.12 Recycling of Asphalt Concrete 382
9.12.1 • Surface Recycling 383
9.12.2 • Central Plant Recycling 383
9.12.3 • In-Place Recycling 384
9.13 Additives 384
9.13.1 • Fillers 384
9.13.2 • Extenders 384
9.13.3 • Rubber 385
9.13.4 • Plastics 385
9.13.5 • Antistripping Agent 385
9.13.6 • Others 385
Summary 385
Questions and Problems 386
9.14 References 392
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Contents xi

TEN
Wood 394

10.1 Structure of Wood 396

10.1.1 • Growth Rings 396
10.1.2 • Anisotropic Nature of Wood 398
10.2 Chemical Composition 399
10.3 Moisture Content 400
10.4 Wood Production 402
10.4.1 • Cutting Techniques 403
10.4.2 • Seasoning 404
10.5 Lumber Grades 405
10.5.1 • Hardwood Grades 406
10.5.2 • Softwood Grades 406
10.6 Defects in Lumber 407
10.7 Physical Properties 410
10.7.1 • Specific Gravity and Density 410
10.7.2 • Thermal Properties 411
10.7.3 • Electrical Properties 412
10.8 Mechanical Properties 412
10.8.1 • Modulus of Elasticity 412
10.8.2 • Strength Properties 413
10.8.3 • Creep 413
10.8.4 • Damping Capacity 413
10.9 Testing to Determine Mechanical Properties 414
10.9.1 • Static Bending Test 415
10.9.2 • Compression Tests 416
10.10 Design Considerations 417
10.11 Organisms that Degrade Wood 418
10.11.1 • Fungi 419
10.11.2 Bacteria
• 419
10.11.3 • Insects 419
10.11.4 • Marine Organisms 420
10.12 Wood Preservation 420
10.12.1 • Petroleum-Based Solutions 420
10.12.2 • Waterborne Preservatives 420
10.12.3 • Application Techniques 421
10.12.4 • Construction Precautions 422
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xii Contents

10.13 Engineered Wood Products 422

10.13.1 • Structural Panels/Sheets 424
10.13.2 • Structural Shapes 425
10.13.3 • Composite Structural Members 438
Summary 438
Questions and Problems 439
10.14 References 444

ELEVEN
Composites 445

11.1 Microscopic Composites 446

11.1.1 • Fiber-Reinforced Composites 447
11.1.2 • Particle-Reinforced Composites 448
11.1.3 • Matrix Phase 449
11.1.4 • Fabrication 449
11.1.5 • Civil Engineering Applications 449
11.2 Macroscopic Composites 452
11.2.1 • Plain Portland Cement Concrete 455
11.2.2 • Reinforced Portland Cement Concrete 455
11.2.3 • Asphalt Concrete 456
11.2.4 • Engineered Wood 457
11.3 Properties of Composites 457
11.3.1 • Loading Parallel to Fibers 457
11.3.2 • Loading Perpendicular to Fibers 459
11.3.3 • Randomly Oriented Fiber Composites 461
11.3.4 • Particle-Reinforced Composites 461
Summary 462
Questions and Problems 462
11.4 References 464

Appendix
Experiments
1. Introduction to Measuring Devices 466
2. Tension Test of Steel and Aluminum 470
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Contents xiii

3. Torsion Test of Steel and Aluminum 474

4. Impact Test of Steel 477
5. Microscopic Inspection of Materials 480
6. Sieve Analysis of Aggregates 482
7. Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate 487
8. Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate 490
9. Bulk Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate 493
10. Slump of Freshly Mixed Portland Cement Concrete 496
11. Unit Weight and Yield of Freshly Mixed Concrete 499
12. Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by Pressure Method 502
13. Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by Volumetric Method 504
14. Making and Curing Concrete Cylinders and Beams 506
15. Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens with Sulfur or Capping
Compound 510
16. Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens 512
17. Flexural Strength of Concrete 515
18. Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete 518
19. Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete 520
20. Testing of Concrete Masonry Units 523
21. Viscosity of Asphalt Binder by Rotational Viscometer 526
22. Dynamic Shear Rheometer Test of Asphalt Binder 528
23. Penetration Test of Asphalt Cement 531
24. Absolute Viscosity Test of Asphalt 533
25. Preparing and Determining the Density of Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA)
Specimens by Means of the Superpave Gyratory Compactor 535
26. Preparation of Asphalt Concrete Specimens Using the Marshall
Compactor 539
27. Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Bituminious Mixtures 543
28. Marshall Stability and Flow of Asphalt Concrete 546
29. Bending and Compression Tests of Wood 548
30. Tensile Properties of Plastics 553

Index 557
Mam_FM_ff.qxd 8/11/05 8:57 PM Page xiv

PREFACE

A basic function of civil and construction engineering is to provide and

maintain the infrastructure needs of society. The infrastructure includes
buildings, water treatment and distribution systems, waste water removal
and processing, dams, and highway and airport bridges and pavements. Al-
though some civil and construction engineers are involved in the planning
process, most are concerned with the design, construction, and maintenance
of facilities. The common denominator among these responsibilities is the
need to understand the behavior and performance of materials. Although
not all civil and construction engineers need to be material specialists, a
basic understanding of the material selection process, and the behavior of
materials, is a fundamental requirement for all civil and construction engi-
neers performing design, construction, and maintenance.
Material requirements in civil engineering and construction facilities are
different from material requirements in other engineering disciplines. Fre-
quently, civil engineering structures require tons of materials with relatively
low replications of specific designs. Generally, the materials used in civil
engineering have relatively low unit costs. In many cases, civil engineering
structures are formed or fabricated in the field under adverse conditions. Fi-
nally, many civil engineering structures are directly exposed to detrimental
effects of the environment.
The subject of engineering materials has advanced greatly in the last few
decades. As a result, many of the conventional materials have either been re-
placed by more efficient materials or modified to improve their perfor-
mance. Civil and construction engineers have to be aware of these advances
and be able to select the most cost-effective material or use the appropriate
modifier for the specific application at hand.
This text is organized into three parts: (1) introduction to materials
engineering, (2) characteristics of materials used in civil and construction
engineering, and (3) laboratory methods for the evaluation of materials.
The introduction to materials engineering includes information on the
basic mechanistic properties of materials, environmental influences, and
basic material classes. In addition, one of the responsibilities of civil and
construction engineers is the inspection and quality control of materials in
the construction process. This requires an understanding of material vari-
ability and testing procedures. The atomic structure of materials is covered
in order to provide basic understanding of material behavior and to relate the
molecular structure to the engineering response.
Mam_FM_ff.qxd 8/11/05 8:57 PM Page xv

Preface xv

The second section, which represents a large portion of the book, presents
the characteristics of the primary material types used in civil and construc-
tion engineering: steel, aluminum, concrete, masonry, asphalt, and wood. Since
the discussion of concrete and asphalt materials requires a basic knowledge of
aggregates, there is a chapter on aggregates. Moreover, since composites are
gaining wide acceptance among engineers and are replacing many of the con-
ventional materials, there is a chapter introducing composites.
The discussion of each type of material includes information on the
following:
■ Basic structure of the materials
■ Material production process
■ Mechanistic behavior of the material and other properties
■ Environmental influences
■ Construction considerations
■ Special topics related to the material discussed in each chapter
Finally, each chapter includes an overview of various test procedures to
introduce the test methods used with each material. However, the detailed
description of the test procedures is left to the appropriate standards orga-
nizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO). These ASTM and AASHTO standards are usually available in
college libraries, and students are encouraged to use them. Also, there are
sample problems in most chapters, as well as selected questions and prob-
lems at the end of each chapter. Answering these questions and problems
will lead to a better understanding of the subject matter.
There are volumes of information available for each of these materials.
It is not possible, or desirable, to cover these materials exhaustively in an in-
troductory single text. Instead, this book limits the information to an intro-
ductory level, concentrates on current practices, and extracts information
that is relevant to the general education of civil and construction engineers.
The content of the book is intended to be covered in one academic se-
mester, although quarter system courses can definitely use it. The instruc-
tor of the course can also change the emphasis of some topics to match the
specific curriculum of the department. Furthermore, since the course usu-
ally includes a laboratory portion, a number of laboratory test methods are
described. The number of laboratory tests in the book is more than what is
needed in a typical semester in order to provide more flexibility to the in-
structor to use the available equipment. Laboratory tests should be coordi-
nated with the topics covered in the lectures so that the students get the
most benefit from the laboratory experience.
The first edition of this textbook seemed to serve the needs of many uni-
versities and colleges. Therefore, the second edition is more of a refinement
and updating of the book, with some notable additions. Several edits were
made to the steel chapter to improve the description of heat treatments,
phase diagram, and the heat-treating effects of welding. Also, a section on
stainless steel was added, and current information on the structural uses of
Mam_FM_ff.qxd 8/11/05 8:57 PM Page xvi

xvi Preface

steel was provided. The cement and concrete chapters have been augmented
with sections on hydration-control admixtures, recycled wash water, silica
fume, self-consolidating concrete, and flowable fill. When the first edition
was published, the Superpave mix design method was just being introduced
to the industry. Now Superpave is a well-established method that has been
field tested and revised to better meet the needs of the paving community.
This development required a complete revision to the asphalt chapter to
accommodate the current methods and procedures for both Performance
Grading of asphalt binders and the Superpave mix design method. The
chapter on wood was revised to provide information on recent manufac-
tured wood products that became available in the last several years. Also,
since fiber reinforced polymer composites have been more commonly used
in retrofitting old and partially damaged structures, several examples were
added in the chapter on composites. In the laboratory manual, an experi-
ment on dry-rodded unit weight of aggregate that is used in portland cement
concrete (PCC) proportioning was added and the experiment on creep of as-
phalt concrete was deleted for lack of use.
In addition to the technical content revisions, there are over 100 new fig-
ures to display concepts and equipment. Multiple sample problems and
homework problems have been added to each chapter to allow professors to
vary assignments between semesters.
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of Drs. Barzin
Mobasher and Chris Lawrence of Arizona State University, Mr. Jim Willson
and Mr. Paul Mueller of the Portland Cement Association, Dr. Mansour
Solimanian of Pennsylvania State University, Mr. Lary Lenke of the Univer-
sity of New Mexico, and Dr. Nabil Grace of Lawrence Tech University for
their advice and for providing some photos and homework problems. Ap-
preciation also goes to Mr. Serif El-Badawy of Arizona State University for
his contribution in the preparation of the solutions manual.
MamCh01v3.qxd 7/29/05 7:43 PM Page 1

1
MATERIALS ENGINEERING
CONCEPTS

Materials engineers are responsible for the selection, specification, and qual-
ity control of materials to be used in a job. These materials must meet cer-
tain classes of criteria or materials properties (Ashby and Jones 1980). These
classes of criteria include
■ economic factors
■ mechanical properties
■ nonmechanical properties
■ production/construction considerations
■ aesthetic properties
When engineers select the material for a specific application, they must
consider the various criteria and make compromises. Both the client and the
purpose of the facility or structure dictate, to a certain extent, the emphasis
that will be placed on the different criteria.
Civil and construction engineers must be familiar with materials used in
the construction of a wide range of structures. Materials most frequently used
include steel, aggregate, concrete, masonry, asphalt, and wood. Materials used
to a lesser extent include aluminum, glass, plastics, and fiber-reinforced com-
posites. Geotechnical engineers make a reasonable case for including soil as
the most widely used engineering material, since it provides the basic support
for all civil engineering structures. However, the properties of soils will not be
discussed in this text, because this is generally the topic of a separate course.
Recent advances in the technology of civil engineering materials have
resulted in the development of better quality, more economical, and safer
materials. These materials are commonly referred to as high-performance
materials. Because more is known about the molecular structure of materials
and because of the continuous research efforts by scientists and engineers,
new materials such as polymers, adhesives, composites, geotextiles, coat-
ings, cold-formed metals, and various synthetic products are competing
with traditional civil engineering materials. In addition, improvements have
MamCh01v3.qxd 7/29/05 7:43 PM Page 2

2 Chapter 1 Materials Engineering Concepts

been made to existing materials by changing their molecular structures or

including additives to improve quality, economy, and performance. For ex-
ample, superplasticizers have made a breakthrough in the concrete industry,
allowing the production of much stronger concrete. Joints made of elas-
tomeric materials have improved the safety of high-rise structures in earth-
quake-active areas. Lightweight synthetic aggregates have decreased the
weight of concrete structures, allowing small cross-sectional areas of com-
ponents. Polymers have been mixed with asphalt, allowing pavements to
last longer under the effect of vehicle loads and environmental conditions.
The field of fiber composite materials has developed rapidly in the last 30
years. Many recent civil engineering projects have used fiber-reinforced com-
posites. These advanced composites compete with traditional materials due to
their higher strength-to-weight ratio and their ability to overcome such short-
comings as corrosion. For example, fiber-reinforced concrete has much greater
toughness than conventional portland cement concrete. Composites can re-
place reinforcing steel in concrete structures. In fact, composites have allowed
the construction of structures that could not have been built in the past.
The nature and behavior of civil engineering materials are as complicated
as those of materials used in any other field of engineering. Due to the high
quantity of materials used in civil engineering projects, the civil engineer fre-
quently works with locally available materials that are not as highly refined
as the materials used in other engineering fields. As a result, civil engineering
materials frequently have highly variable properties and characteristics.
This chapter reviews the manner in which the properties of materials
affect their selection and performance in civil engineering applications. In
addition, the chapter reviews some basic definitions and concepts of engi-
neering mechanics required for understanding material behavior. The vari-
able nature of material properties is also discussed so that the engineer
will understand the concepts of precision and accuracy, sampling, quality
assurance, and quality control. Finally, instruments used for measuring ma-
terial response are described.

1.1 Economic Factors

The economics of the material selection process are affected by much more
than just the cost of the material. Factors that should be considered in the
selection of the material include
■ availability and cost of raw materials
■ manufacturing costs
■ transportation
■ placing
■ maintenance
The materials used for civil engineering structures have changed over
time. Early structures were constructed of stone and wood. These materials
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