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www.routledge.com
Proselytization Revisited
Page Intentionally Left Blank
 Proselytization Revisited
Rights Talk, Free Markets and Culture Wars

Edited by

Rosalind I.J. Hackett

First published 2008 by Equinox, an imprint of Acumen

Published 2014 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© Rosalind I. J. Hackett and contributors 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.

Notices
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and
knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds,
or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they
should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors,
contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to
persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise,
or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Proselytization revisited : rights talk, free markets, and culture wars
/ edited by Rosalind I.J. Hackett.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-84553-227-7 (hb)
ISBN-13: 978-1-84553-228-4 (pbk.)
1. Proselytizing. I. Hackett, Rosalind I. J. BL637.P76 2008
207’.2—dc22
2007046731
Typeset and edited by Queenston Publishing, Hamilton, Canada.
 Proselytization Revisited
Rights Talk, Free Markets and Culture Wars

Contents

Revisiting Proselytization in the Context of Rights Talk, 1

Free Markets and Culture Wars
Rosalind I. J. Hackett

Section I
Conflicts over Proselytism - An Overview and 35
Comparative Perspectivective
Jean-François Mayer
Conversion of the World: Proselytization in India and 53
the Universalization of Christianity
Jacob De Roover and Sarah Claerhout
The Logic of Anti-Proselytization, Revisited 77
Grace Kao

Section II
The Changing Face of Christian Proselytization: New 109
Actors from the Global South
Paul Freston
Muslim Apostasy, Christian Conversion, and Religious 139
Freedom in Egypt
Heather J. Sharkey
vi

Seeing is More Than Believing: Posters and 167

Proselytization in Nigeria
F.-K. Asonzeh Ukah

Section III
Buddhism and the Politics of Conversion in Sri Lanka 199
Steve C. Berkwitz
Merit and the Search for Inner Peace: the Discourses 231
and Technologies of Dhammakaya Proselytization
Rachelle M. Scott
Asia’s Antioch: Evangelical Christianity and 253
Proselytism in Singapore
Jean DeBernardi
False Consciousness and the Jargon of Authenticity: 283
Religion and Nationalism in the Christianised
Lowland Philippines
Paul-François Tremlett
Salvation through Secular Protest: the Development of 301
Falun Gong Proselytization
Patsy Rahn
The Social and Legal Context of Proselytization in 321
Contemporary Japanese Religions
Mark Mullins

Section IV
Negotiating Proselytism in 21st Century Russia 339
Olga Kazmina

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

 vii

Between Da’wa and Mission: Turkish Islamic 365

Movements in the Turkic World (Central Asia and
the Caucasus)
Bayram Balci
Spiritual Wars in the 10-40 Window: Korean 389
Proselytism among Russia’s Asian Minorities
Julia S. Kovalchuk

Section V
Proselytization or Information? Wicca and the Internet 409
Shawn Arthur
You Can’t Talk to an Empty Stomach: Faith-based 431
Activism, Holistic Evangelism, and the Publicity of
Evangelical Engagement
Omri Elisha

Proselytization: Closing Thoughts from a Sociologist 455

James T. Richardson

Index 467

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

Page Intentionally Left Blank
 Preface and acknowledgements

For several years I vowed never to do an edited book again. But the experi-
ence of this project compelled me to break that vow. It began with the urge
to write something on the changing face of proselytization in our globaliz-
ing world, accompanied by the realization that I could not do it alone. So I
decided to organize a symposium on the topic for the International Asso-
ciation for the History of Religion’s nineteenth World Congress in Tokyo
in March 2005. Several of the authors traveled from around the world to
participate in this most stimulating academic encounter, and we followed up
with more sessions at the 2007 American Academy of Religion and American
Anthropological Association meetings in San Diego and Washington, DC
respectively. In the interim, the academic communitas was nurtured by vari-
ous exchanges within the group and among authors, as well as by internet
and media postings of stories relating to controversial aspects of proselytizing
(Jean-François Mayer and his www.Proselytism.info website were an invalu-
able resource in this regard).
I am especially gratified that this volume contains chapters from several
younger scholars from around the globe. Their work reflects intimate knowl-
edge of the various localities where they reside and/or have conducted recent
fieldwork. The project is also enriched by the contributions of several sea-
soned scholars who have been able to provide analyses of larger social and
religious fields. My own interests in religious change and (re)affiliation in
Africa date back three decades, but, like many of the authors in the collec-
tion, I am struck by how the legal and mass-mediated dimensions of these
issues have increased. This is why we chose to focus more on the processes,
such as how religious groups and individuals propagate their messages, with
a view to implementing their goals and attracting new followers, rather than
the end product of actual “conversion” (which some of our authors argue
is a very individualized, Western Christian concept). Transnational religious
movements are a popular topic with researchers, journalists and public ana-
lysts these days and the case studies herein offer local, regional, national, and
transnational perspectives on new strategies of representing and transmitting
religious ideas and identities.
x

This project germinated and took shape while I was enjoying first-class
academic support as a Rockefeller Fellow at the Joan B. Kroc Institute for
International Peace Studies at the University of Notre Dame in 2003–04.
Work on the chapter drafts was also facilitated by a non-teaching semester
kindly granted to me in spring 2006 by my home institution, the University
of Tennessee. I was aided in the task of editing the manuscript in the early
stages by my then graduate assistant, Peter Kraslawsky. In the latter phase,
Caroline Straight helped turn my roughshod index into a polished reality,
with the assistance of Jonathan Kenigson on the sudoku aspects of index
generation. Janet Joyce was my editor in a former life for another project, so I
am more than happy that she and her fine Equinox team are the publishers of
the current book. Finally, the book is dedicated to Professor Andrew F. Walls,
not just because he set me on the high road to an academic career, but also
for all the fresh thinking and ideas he has brought to the study of missionary
activity in Africa and beyond.

Rosalind I. J. Hackett
Knoxville, Tennessee
January 27, 2008

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

 Contributors

Shawn Arthur is an Assistant Professor of Religion at Appalachian State

University in Boone, North Carolina. He received his Ph.D. from Boston
University specializing in Daoism and Chinese Medicine, and he continues
to author articles in his secondary field of interest: Contemporary Paganism.
Bayram C. Balci is the Director of the Institut Français d’Etudes sur l’Asie
Centrale (IFEAC) in Tashkent, French Research Institute on Central Asia.
He is the author of Entre Islam et laïcité, les missionnaires de l’Islam en Asie
Centrale, les Ecoles turques de Fethullah Gülen, (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose,
2003) and, with Raoul Motika, Religion et politique dans le Caucase post sovié-
tique (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2007).
Stephen C. Berkwitz is an Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Mis-
souri State University. He is the author of Buddhist History in the Vernacular:
The Power of the Past in Late Medieval Sri Lanka (Brill, 2004) and The History
of the Buddha’s Relic Shrine: A Translation of the Sinhala Thupavamsa (Oxford
University Press, 2007). He received a Fulbright Senior Scholar Award for Sri
Lanka in 2006.
Sarah Claerhout is a research and teaching assistant at the Research Centre
Vergelijkende Cultuurwetenschap, Ghent University, Belgium. The focus of the
Research Centre is on the study of the Western culture through its under-
standing of other cultures and on the cultural differences between Asia and
the West. She is currently working on a doctoral thesis on the Western under-
standing of religious conversion since the Reformation and the implications
of this understanding for the debates on religious conversion in colonial and
postcolonial India.
Jean DeBernardi is Professor of Anthropology at the University of Alberta.
She is the author of Rites of Belonging: Memory, Modernity and Identity in
a Malaysian Chinese Community (Stanford University Press, 2004) and The
Way that Lives in the Heart: Chinese Popular Religion and Spirit Mediums in
Penang, Malaysia (Stanford University Press, 2006). With funding from the
Chiang Ching-kuo foundation and the Social Science and Humanities Re-
search Council of Canada she is now doing research on the modernization of
Daoism in Southeast Asia and China.
xii

Omri Elisha is a cultural anthropologist and Resident Scholar at the School

for Advanced Research, Santa Fe, NM. He has received research awards from
the Social Science Research Council and Louisville Institute, and was a Post-
doctoral Fellow at Fordham University. He has published in scholarly as well
as journalistic venues, and is currently writing a book on conservative evan-
gelical activism and US megachurches for University of California Press.
Jakob De Roover is a Postdoctoral Fellow of the Research Foundation (FWO)
Flanders at the Research Centre Vergelijkende Cultuurwetenschap, Ghent Uni-
versity, Belgium. His research concerns the cultural history of liberal tolera-
tion and secularism in Europe and its impact on colonial and postcolonial
India. In spring 2007 he was a visiting research scholar at the Department of
Philosophy, Columbia University, New York, followed by a semester as Visit-
ing Assistant Professor at the Department of Philosophy and Religion and as
Research Scholar at the Mahatma Gandhi Center for Global Nonviolence,
both at James Madison University in Virginia.
Paul Freston is Byker Chair in Sociology at Calvin College, Michigan and
professor of sociology on the post-graduate programme in social sciences at
the Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos, Brazil. He is the author of several
books, including Evangelicals and Politics in Asia, Africa and Latin America
(Cambridge University Press, 2001).
Rosalind I. J. Hackett is a Distinguished Professor in the Humanities at the
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, where she teaches Religious Studies and
Anthropology. She has published widely on religion in Africa, notably on
new religious movements, as well as on art, media, gender, conflict, and reli-
gious freedom in the African context. In 2005 she was elected as President of
the International Association for the History of Religions (until 2010). She
is currently bringing to completion a co-edited volume Religious Dimensions
of Conflict and Peace in Neoliberal Africa (Univ. of Notre Dame Press) and
Nigeria: Religion in the Balance (US Institute of Peace).
Grace Y. Kao is Assistant Professor of Religious Studies in the Department
of Interdisciplinary Studies at Virginia Tech. Her book, Grounding Human
Rights in a Pluralist World: Between Minimalist and Maximalist Approaches,
is currently under contract with Georgetown University Press. Her work
has also appeared in a number of other outlets, including the Journal of the
American Academy of Religion and the Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics.
In 2005-2006, she was awarded an American Fellowship by the American
Academy of University Women (AAUW).

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

 xiii

Olga Kazmina is an Associate Professor of Ethnology at Moscow State

University. She is the author of more than 150 publications. Her most recent
articles (in Russian) are “Orthodox Religiosity in Contemporary Russia:
Historical Problem of the Correlation of Religious Identity and Religious
Practice” in the Bulletin of Peoples' Friendship University of Russia and “The
Problem of Proselytism and the Formation of New Religious Situation in
Russia” in the Bulletin of Moscow University. She has been a member of
the editorial board of the Journal of the American Academy of Religion since
2004.
Julia S. Kovalchuk (PhD, 2006) is a researcher in the Institute of Archaeology
and Ethnography Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science (Sector
of Ethnology). Her research interests focus on Pentecostalism, the history of
Christianity in Asia, the contemporary religious situation in Siberia, Protes-
tant missions in Russian Federation, and religious and ethnic identity.
Jean-FranÇois Mayer is the editor of the website Religioscope (www.religion.
info) and the director of the newly-founded Institut Religioscope (www.re-
ligioscope.org). From 1998 to 2007, he taught at the University of Fribourg,
Switzerland. He is the author of several books and numerous articles on new
religious movements and other developments in the field of contemporary
religion. List of publications: www.mayer.info.
Mark R. Mullins is Professor in the Graduate School of Global Studies and
Faculty of Liberal Arts, Sophia University, Tokyo, where his teaching and re-
search focuses on religion in modern societies. He is the author and co-editor
of a number of works, including Religion and Society in Modern Japan (1993),
Christianity Made in Japan (1998), and Religion and Social Crisis in Japan
(2001). His current research focuses on neo-nationalism and contemporary
Japanese religions.
Patsy Rahn works in the Education Department of the Indiana University
Art Museum. She has published several articles including: “Media as a means
for the Falun Gong movement” (Asia Media, 2005) and “The Chemistry of
a Conflict: The Chinese Government and the Falun Gong” (Terrorism and
Political Violence, 2002). She has also published several book reviews in Nova
Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religion.
James T. Richardson, Professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies at the Uni-
versity of Nevada, is Director of the Grant Sawyer Center for Justice Stud-
ies at the University, where he also directs the graduate degree programs for
trial judges offered in conjunction with the National Judicial College and the
National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, both of which are

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

xiv

headquartered on the university campus. His current research interests focus

on the interface of law and religion, especially how legal systems are used
as social control devices for minority religions. His latest book is Regulating
Religion: Case Studies from Around the Globe (Kluwer, 2004).
Rachelle M. Scott is an Assistant Professor of Religious Studies at the Uni-
versity of Tennessee – Knoxville. She is the author of Nirvana for Sale?:
Buddhism, Wealth, and the Dhammakaya Temple in Contemporary Thailand
(SUNY, forthcoming) and “A New Buddhist Sect?: The Dhammakaya Tem-
ple and the Politics of Difference” (Religion, December 2006). She received a
NEH summer grant to study religion and mediation in Thailand in 2005.
Heather J. Sharkey is Assistant Professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic Stud-
ies in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the
University of Pennsylvania. She is the author of Living with Colonialism: Na-
tionalism and Culture in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (University of California
Press, 2003) and American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters in an
Age of Empire (Princeton University Press, forthcoming, 2008). The Carn-
egie Corporation of New York selected her as a Carnegie Scholar in 2006.
Paul-François Tremlett is a Research Associate in the Study of Religions at
the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. He is also a Visit-
ing Lecturer at the Institute of Ismaili Studies. He is assistant editor of Cul-
ture and Religion and a co-editor of Taiwan in Comparative Perspective. He
has published essays on theory and method in the study of religions and on
aspects of religion and culture in the Philippines and Taiwan. Two books:
Lévi-Strauss on Religion (Equinox, 2008) and Religion and the Discourse on
Modernity (Continuum, 2008) are forthcoming. He is also co-editor, with
Fang-long Shih and Stuart Thompson of Re-Writing Culture in Taiwan
(Routledge, 2008).
Asonzeh Ukah is a lecturer and Research Fellow in the Department for the
History of Religions, University of Bayreuth, Germany. He has published
widely in learned journals, notably on new religious media and visual culture
in Africa. He is the author is A New Paradigm of Pentecostal Power: A Study of
the Redeemed Christian Church of God in Nigeria (New Jersey/Asmara: Africa
World Press, 2008).

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

 Chapter 1

Revisiting Proselytization in the Twenty-first Century1

Rosalind I. J. Hackett

Contrary to the hopes and expectations of many, the neo-liberal trends of our
global era have neither led to free markets for religion everywhere nor always
to civility between religions in modern pluralistic states. In fact, the human
rights revolution has arguably engendered new conflicts between local and
foreign religious groups in a range of settings, not least Russia and India
(Witte 2007). One of the most noticeable areas of contention pertains to the
propagation of one’s religion with the intent to convert others.2 From French
schools to tsunami-affected areas, in Turkish streets and Indian state legisla-
tures, accusations of aggressive or improper proselytizing activity now make
global news. Legal scholar John Witte trenchantly describes the problem of
proselytizing as “one of the great ironies of the democratic revolution of the
modern world” (Witte 2007, 13).
The problems arising over proselytism were significant enough in the late
1990s that the Center for the Study of Law and Religion at Emory University
—under the leadership of the aforementioned John Witte—embarked on a
major project known as the “The Problem and Promise of Proselytism in the
New Democratic World Order (1995–2000).” It was described as “an empiri-
cal and normative study of the new war for souls breaking out in various new
democracies of the world between and among indigenous faiths and foreign
proselytizing faiths.” 3 After a series of international conferences, the resulting
four volumes explored this new battleground of local and foreign religions,
and between religions and the state, in a range of contexts and traditions,
against the backdrop of democratization and the human rights revolution
(An-Na’im 1999; Witte and Bourdeaux 1999; Witte and Martin 1999; Sig-

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008, Unit 6, The Village, 101 Amies Street, London SW11 2JW
2 2 Revisiting Proselytization in the Twenty-first Century

mund 1999; see also Witte 2007).

Nearly a decade later, in light of even greater intensification of this “war
for souls” and heightened global insecurity and terrorism, a new project was
envisaged by this editor: to assemble a wide-ranging group of scholars—all
well positioned, by virtue of recent field research or location in the actual
regions under study—to expand and update the earlier studies, and provide
new conceptual focus.4 Several of the contributors agreed on “proselytization”
as the primary operational concept, rather than on proselytism or conversion.
Despite the interconnections,5 it was felt that the emphasis on “proselytiza-
tion” called for greater attention to the process rather than the product, the
means more than the end. In other words, the possible religious conversion
(an event of personal, spiritual transformation) was often less important for
generating conflict than the forms of expression, transmission, and behavior
deployed to this end.6 We considered that the latter was the area where more
changes and backlash were observable.
“Proselytization” also lends itself to a less negative reading than “proselyt-
ism” (often interpreted as unethical, coercive, or fraudulent), and allows for
greater comparison of changing strategies amidst ever more competitive pub-
lic spheres. Moreover, the term clearly connotes the instrumentalist side of
transmitting one’s religion—comprising a range of acts and forms of com-
munication (such as “witnessing,” “professing,” “advocating”) which, taken
alone, do not convey the significance, nor the problematic, of the broader
concept.7 It also has the capacity, as some of the authors demonstrate, to
comprise not just actions intended to effect religious (re)orientation, but also
efforts to bring about a change in attitude toward the source group.8
While social, cultural, and historical interpretations characterize this collec-
tion of essays, media and legal issues stand out in several of the contributions.
This is because law and the mass media represent the new interface for rela-
tions between and within religions, as well as between religions and the state.9
Together with the discursive strategies of marketing and growth from the
modern business world, they can radically influence the key factors of public
recognition and representation. As anthropologists and sociologists remind
us, context is all-important in understanding how and why individuals and
communities decide to change their religious affiliation and/or persuade oth-
ers to do likewise (Hefner 1993; Austin-Broos 2003). Nowadays that context
is as much translocal as local, transnational as well as national, due to new
trends in migration, travel, communication, and trade (on West Africa, see
Fourchard et al. 2005). It is also historical, with current dispensations often
influenced by previous patterns of inclusion and exclusion, together with
other manipulations of religion, whether feudal, colonialist, or nationalist.
As communal rights rise to the fore in this era of global religious resur-

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

 Hackett 2 3

gence, challenging the post-Enlightenment individualistic, secular ideal, it

seems more relevant to analyze proselytization as a salient aspect of height-
ened forms of religious activism, competition, and conflict. In fact, human
rights scholar Abdullahi An-Na’im argues that an individualized conception
of freedom of religion “cannot adequately address the concerns of communi-
ties about proselytization, and its consequences”; it must be balanced by “a
dynamic and creative understanding of collective rights” (An-Na’im 1999,
15–16, emphasis in original). Hence, we pay less attention in this volume
to the individualistic, experiential dimension. The nature and experience of
conversion, notably of the individual, have been extensively treated in a range
of works, notably by Lewis Rambo (1995; 1999; see also Nock 1933 and
Leone 2003). There is also a sense in which “conversion” is more closely iden-
tified with the Christian tradition (Asad 1996, De Roover and Claerhout this
volume), than modern forms of proselytizing and anti-proselytizing.10

A controversial freedom
Legal scholar Johan van der Vyver describes the right to engage in missionary
activity as “perhaps the most controversial component of religious freedom”
(van der Vyver 1999, 128). He further states that the disagreements over the
right to spread and convert others to one’s religion “remain a stumbling block
in efforts to establish universal respect for and adherence to the vital com-
ponents of religious freedom as contemplated by the founders of the United
Nations” (van der Vyver 1998, 420). Legal scholars who specialize in religious
freedom issues all link proselytizing activities with the freedom to change
one’s religion (Lerner 2000, 81). Natan Lerner notes the “considerable con-
troversy” generated by issues relating to change of religion during the drafting
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 (Lerner 2000, 80).
In fact, he talks of a “downward or deteriorating trend” in the recognition
of both the right to proselytize and to change one’s religion (Lerner 2000,
118). M. Abdelfattah Amor, the former UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom
of Religion or Belief, noted in one of his reports that the major violations of
Article 1 of the 1981 UN Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of
Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief came from
restrictions on proselytizing, and forced conversions.11 John Witte reminds
us that the “right to choose or change religion” only attained that status after
what he terms “centuries of cruel experience” (Witte and Martin 1999, xvi).
Fomenting religious hatred is prohibited in international law, so too is
forced conversion, yet there are considered to be ambiguities and gaps in the
standards with regard to proselytizing (Boyle and Sheen 1997, 12). There
is virtually no explicit mention of the freedom to disseminate a religion or

© Equinox Publishing Ltd. 2008

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