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 Also by Daniel R. Schwarz and published by Macmillan

DISRAELI'S FICTION
CONRAD: 'ALMAYER'S FOLLY' TO 'UNDER WESTERN EYES'

CONRAD: THE LATER FICTION

THE HUMANISTIC HERITAGE: CRITICAL THEORIES

OF THE ENGLISH NOVEL FROM JAMES TO HILLIS
MILLER

THE CASE FOR A HUMANISTIC POETICS

THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE ENGLISH NOVEL, 1890-1930

Reading Joyce's
Ulysses
Daniel R. Schwarz
Professor of English
Cornell University
 First published in Great Britain 1987 by
MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-0-333-55613-9 ISBN 978-1-349-21414-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-21414-3

First published in the United States of America 1987 by

ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC.,
Scholarly and Reference Division,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010

ISBN 978-0-312-66458-9 (cloth)

ISBN 978-0-312-00086-8 (paper)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Schwarz, Daniel R.
Reading Joyce's Ulysses
Bibliography : p.
Includes index.
I. Joyce, James 1882-1941. Ulysses. I. Title.
PR6019.09U692 1987 823'.912 86--6680
ISBN 978-0-312-66458-9 (cloth)
ISBN 978-0-312-00086-8 (paper)

© Daniel R. Schwarz 1987

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be
made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with
written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by
the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to
criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The author(s) has/have asserted his/her/their rights to be identified as the author(s) of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and
sustained forest sources.
II 10 9 8 7 6
05 04 03 02 0 I 00 99 98
For Ian Gregor and for my students with whom I have
made the odyssean journey through Ulysses
Contents
Acknowledgements Vlll

Introduction: "0, Rocks .... Tell Us in Plain Words" 1

Joyce as "Lord and Giver" of Language: Form and
Metaphor in Ulysses 7

2 Joyce's Concept of a Hero 37

3 The Odyssey of Reading Ulysses 58

4 The Movement from Lyrical to Epical and Dramatic

Form: the Opening of Ulysses 71

5 Joyce's Irish Jew: Bloom 103

6 The Concept of Artistic Paternity in "Scylla and

Charybdis" 138

7 The Adventure of Reading: the Styles of the Odyssey

and the Odyssey of Styles 153

8 "Circe" as the Climax of Joyce's Humanistic Vision 207

9 Metaphoricity in "Eumaeus" and "Ithaca" 231

10 "Penelope": Molly as Metaphor 258

Appendix 277

Selected Bibliography 281

Index 286
Vll
Acknow led gem en ts
Since this book results from my experience not only as a reader,
but as a teacher of Ulysses, my greatest debt is to my students at
Cornell where I have been teaching Ulysses regularly for the past
eighteen years.
My Cornell colleagues, especially Phillip Marcus, have been
generous and helpful in dialogues about Ulysses, but I want also
to acknowledge the ubiquitous influence on my work of M. H.
Abrams, and the friendship and collegiality of Tom Hill and
Michael Colacurcio.
As my student and my graduate assistant in two summer
session courses on Ulysses, Beth Newman has provided stimulat-
ing and challenging conversation on Ulysses. I have also learned
from the work of my graduate student William Thickstun. For
more than twenty years, since I was his student at Edinburgh in
1961-2, I have had the benefit of Ian Gregor's advice and
friendship. I am grateful to the participants in my 1985 National
Endowment for the Humanities Summer Seminar for high-
school teachers for helping clarify some points in my argument. I
appreciate the splendid and loyal secretarial support of Phillis
Molock, the proofreading assistance of Diane McPherson and
Mary Ann Naples, and the encouragement of my wife and sons.
I would like to thank Random House and The Bodley Head
for permission to quote from James Joyce's Ulysses, and for the
Society of Authors for permission to reprintJoyce's schema as it
appeared in C. H. Peake's james joyce: the Citizen and Artist
(Stanford University Press, 1977).

Cornell Universitv DANIEL R. SCHWARZ

Ithaca, New York

Vlll
 Introduction: ''0,
Rocks. . . . Tell Us in Plain
Words"
This study is for readers of Ulysses. It attempts to comment on
the major issues confronting a reader as he tries to make sense of
the novel. In the title of my Introduction, I playfully use Molly's
response to Bloom's explanation of metempsychosis ("0, rocks!
... Tell us in plain words") to indicate that Ulysses is a readable
novel- rather than an elaborate puzzle or a Rosetta Stone or a
hieroglyph. For Ulysses, while presenting unique challenges,
depends upon readers who have a good deal of reading experi-
ence in more traditional narratives.
Ulysses is first and foremost a novel about three individuals-
Stephen Dedalus, Leopold Bloom, and Molly Bloom - who live
in turn-of-the-century Dublin. But it should also be read as a
social, political, and historical novel. Ulysses is Joyce's inquiry
into the question of what values are viable in the twentieth
century urban world where, according to joyce's view, God does
not exist and traditional notions of heroism are obsolete. Among
other things, Ulysses is an effort to redefine the concept of the
hero. Joyce uses the marginal Jew Bloom to redefine heroism in
secular humanistic terms. As he examines recent Irish history
and culture, Joyce proposes Bloom as an alternative to the
xenophobia and fantasies of the Celtic Renaissance as well as a
successor to Parnell.
There is a danger that the study of Ulysses has become like
ground that has been farmed for so long that it now only
supports exotic crops like persimmons. While we have a vast
array of critical apparatus, we have neglected the questions of
how and what the novel means. In terms of the vast critical
landscape of Ulysses, I shall attempt to provide a bridge between
those who stress Ulysses as a novel that reveals the psyche and
1
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2 Reading joyce's "Ulysses"
motives of characters and those who stress Ulysses as an elabor-
ate rhetorical experiment. While taking account of essential
arguments of prior critics and acknowledging their contribution
in the appropriate places, I shall try to focus on the novel rather
than on the tradition of commentary produced by the thriving
cottage industry ofJoyce scholarship. While discussing Ulysses in
terms of the relationships among the three basic units of formal
criticism - author, text, and audience, I shall use contextual
information when necessary.
Joyce transforms the nominalistic events of one day in the lives
of his three characters- events based often on details ofhis own
life- into significant events. We shall explore how Joyce creates
the metaphorical and allusive relationships on which meaning
depends, and we shall examine how Joyce gives significance to
events in the lives of the major figures on one single day, 16June
1904. We shall not only examine how Joyce makes use of his
major sources- The Odyssey, the Old and New Testaments, and
Shakespeare, but how he uses in important ways The Iliad, as
well as the works of Wilde, Yeats, Dante, Milton, Tennyson,
Swift, and Blake.
Ulysses teaches us how to read itself. Put another way, we
should think of our experience of reading it as the reader's
odyssey. We shall stress what the novel does to us as we read it
and how the ventriloquy of its various styles establishes an
unusually complex relationship between text and reader. Unlike
some recent critics who believe that Joyce's interest in style
deflects the reader from his characters, I believe that the focus in
every chapter returns to the subjects of Stephen, Bloom, Molly,
and the Dublin world they inhabit. To be sure, in the chapters
from "Sirens" through "Oxen of the Sun", we are aware of a
tension in Joyce's imagination between interest in style and
interest in character, but in the climax of every chapter his focus
returns to his major figures and their significance. As odyssean
readers turning the pages of the novel and progressing through
the one crystallizing day in the lives of the major figures, we
must overcome the difficulties of style and the opacity of content
-just as the modern Ulysses must resist temptations which
threaten to deflect him from his journey horne.
In my view the principle interest of Joyce's stylistic exper-
imentations should be how they shape a reading of the novel. For
the odyssean reader is invited to see that Bloom and Stephen
 Introduction 3
survive and transcend what Karen Lawrence in her The Odyssey
of Style in "Ulysses" calls "the wealth of detail and ... the protean
transformations of style". 1 I think Lawrence's title privileges
style over character, in part because it sees style as something
that is embodied in the text separate and distinct from the effects
it creates. By contrast, I find style inseparable from what it does
to the events and characters it describes and what it does to the
reader as he negotiates his journey through the novel to his final
destination, the novel's end. Since Joyce's focus - notwith-
standing frequent rhetorical flourishes and word-play for its own
sake - always returns to the characters and their meaning, we
should assume that the effects of his language upon the reader
were never far from his mind.
As odyssean readers, we must wend our way through a variety
of experiences, but these experiences can best be understood in
terms of the novel's two major and contradictory formal princi-
ples: its insistence on integration and its refusal to allow every
word to signify in terms of coherent thematic or structural
patterns. The first formal principle urges the reader to see
Ulysses as a completely organic and integrated novel in which
one can conceive in every part some aspect of the grace and
harmony of the whole. In his book Godel, Escher, Bach, Douglas
Hofstadter describes the graph of a mathematical function INT
(x), every section of which is a replica of the whole; since every
individual part of each section is also a replica of the whole, the
graph consists of an infinite number of copies of itself.2 INT (x)
becomes an apt expression for reading Ulysses, because it ex-
presses the Viconian idea that history repeats itself and that the
whole can be perceived within the component of one aspect of a
culture. Another model for organic unity is the genetic code
which determines the macrostructure of an organism, but which
is contained in every separate part of the organism.
But opposed to the totalizing perspective is the second formal
principle which insists that, as Geoffrey H. Hartman puts it,
"literary language displays a polysemy, or an excess of the
signifier over the signified" .3 Resisting the odyssean reader's
efforts to understand Ulysses in terms of organic unity are a
plethora of catalogues, barely relevant details, marginalia, false
clues, linguistic games, and playful attempts to undermine the
reader's quest for unity. On the one hand, Ulysses insists that its
readers interpret every detail in terms of larger patterns, and
4 Reading joyce's "Ulysses"

thus urges the book's own argument that even the most particu-
lar details of the individual lives of Bloom and Stephen are
important because Bloom and Stephen iterate major historical
and mythical figures in western civilization. But, on the other
hand, by focusing on the quirky and idiosyncratic aspects in
human behaviour, Ulysses immerses the reader in the nominalistic
world of the lives of a few characters during one day.
Does not Joyce's insistence on exploring the eccentricities of
language for its own sake - its local wit, word games, ventril-
oquism, and typography- urge the reader to pause and enjoy
(without imposing interpretive patterns or judgments upon) the
peculiarities and oddities of human behaviour? For Ulysses is full
of moments which immerse the reader in the local pleasures of
the text and resist interpretation. At times, the novel's interest in
moments of life and linguistic pyrotechnics for their own sake
temporarily deflects the reader from allegories of reading that
propose organic unity. For the sake of intellectual housekeeping,
it would be neater either to give the two modes of reading - the
one that insists on moving from immersion to interpretive reflec-
tion, the other that stresses immersion in the text for its own sake
-equal importance or to claim that the latter deconstructs the
former. But it is more accurate to say that at most points the
novel invites the first mode of reading Ulysses, the traditional
humanistic mode of reading that stresses unity of form and
content, rather than the latter, deconstructionist mode of read-
ing which questions meaning, coherence, and significance. Yet
the dialectic between the two modes of reading - a dialectic
which enacts more vividly than any other literary work I know
the contending claims of the two dominant ideologies of reading
on today's critical mindscape - is crucial to the experience of
reading Ulysses.
My study of Ulysses is based on some fundamental assump-
tions about reading novels. Let me briefly summarize them. I
assume that the author has created an imagined world, an
ontology separate and distinct from the real one, and that the
created world of a good novel is organized according to orderly
principles and is apprehensible by orderly principles, although
the reader's concepts of order may be different from those of the
author. The structure of a novel is an evolving process in which
the reader participates with the author. After all, the author
embodies in his work a structure of effects that arouses expecta-
 Introduction 5

tions and subsequently fulfils, modifies, transforms, postpones,

or deflates them. Since each novel generates its own aesthetic, we
need to inquire into how a particular novel signifies. We must
define the voice of the novel by continually asking who is
speaking to what implied audience and with what intended
effects.
Finally, the language of a novel presents a concatenation of
events or episodes that comprise a narrative; this narrative -
notwithstanding the kind of stylistic eccentricities and deliberate
efforts to subvert the expectations of traditional narrative that we
find in a novel like Ulysses - makes a coherent statement about
the way life is lived in the imagined world within the text.
Moreover, our interest in imagined worlds depends upon their
relation to real ones; although that relation may be oblique, we
do look for kinds of representation in our fictions, and we do
understand events in fiction in terms of signification beyond as
well as within the imagined world of the novel.
Thus it is not only appropriate but necessary to inquire into
the relationship between the presence embodied in the form of
the novel and the real author. Reading is a mode of perception,
and reading about characters within an imagined world appeals
to us because such reading is an extension of how we perceive
and understand the events in our lives. Of course, we must
understand that characters in fiction are functions of the formal
properties of a novel's imagined world. But, despite some recent
attacks on the "metaphysics of presence", we should not be
apologetic for or embarrassed by thinking of characters in
literature as if they were humans within the "hypothesis" of
their imagined worlds, or as reflections, distortions, or parodies
of their creators.
The aforementioned concerns define a rather more humanistic
canon of modern British literature than the one defined by the
New Critical emphasis on "Exit Author" or the tendency of
recent theories to view the author as a kind of historical accident
whose vision and style are dialectically shaped by the Zeitgeist in
which he wrote. Readers of my prior work, including The Humanistic
Heritage, my recent study of Anglo-American novel theory,
will recognize a kinship between my approach to Ulysses and the
substantive claims I have been making for the pluralistic Anglo-
American tradition of reading novels. For lack of a better term, I
have called this tradition humanistic formalism. I conceive this
6 Reading Joyce's "Ulysses"
tradition as progressive, evolving, and open to entering into a
fruitful dialogue with structuralism, deconstruction, and semio-
tics about how and why novels signify, Reading Joyce's "Ulysses"
is, among other things, an effort to demonstrate that this tradi-
tion of reading - because of its resourcefulness, flexibility,
energy, and potential for assimilating other modes of inquiry-
provides the best means of coming to terms with complex
literary works.

* * *
Quotations refer to Ulysses: A Critical and Synoptic Edition, edited
by Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Mel-
chior (London and New York: Garland, 1984). Within the text I
refer to this monumental work of scholarship as the Gabler
edition. While I have my misgivings about some of its correc-
tions, and am aware that some of its findings have been called
into question and will be challenged by subsequent textual
scholarship, this edition must be regarded as authoritative. In
addition to the episode and line number in the Gabler edition, I
have included page references to the 1961 Random House edi-
tion. Where there is a change in the Gabler edition from the
Random House edition, I have underlined the episode and line
number. The appendix provides Joyce's schema for Ulysses. 4

NOTES

1. Karen Lawrence, The Odyssey of Style in 'Ulysses' (Princeton Univer-

sity Press) p. 6.
2. Douglas Hofstadter, Godel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid
(New York: Basic Books, 1979).
3. Geoffrey H. Hartman, "The Culture of Criticism", PMLA, 99:3
(May 1984) p. 386.
4. My scheme follows C. H. Peake's in james joyce: the Citizen and the
Artist (Stanford University Press, 1977) pp. 120-l. Peake combines
Stuart Gilbert's scheme in hisjamesjoyce's 'Ulysses': a Study (1930;
rev. New York: Random House, 1952) p. 41, with the "Correspon-
dences" column which Hugh Kenner published in his Dublin's joyce
(London: Chatto & Windus, 1955) pp. 226--7.
1 Joyce as "Lord and Giver"
of Language: Form and
Metaphor in Ulysses
I begin from the premise that literary criticism must first pose
the necessary questions about a work and that each work gen-
erates its own line of inquiry. The major questions to ask when
teaching or writing about Ulysses are what does it signify and
how does it signify? Can we reconcile its symbolic implications
and its vast historical and literary scope with its nominalistic
texture of experience- experience that often has its origin in the
life ofJoyce? How can a novel that takes its significance from the
author's biography be discussed? Does it have aesthetic auton-
omy? Can we discover something about its form that tells us
what kind of novel we are reading and helps us define its
approach to representation? Is the naturalistic novel of the
experience of Leopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus on one
ordinary if possibly important day at odds both with the novel's
pretensions as the modern epic and its insistence that the experi-
ences of Stephen and Bloom reiterate those of major figures of
the past? How does Joyce's obsession with the scheme of the
novel - with each chapter's organs, colours, techniques, sym-
bols, and correspondences to mythic and historical figures -
reinforce, but also at times undermine both the metaphorical
implications and the basic story and characterization? Can we
locate within the language principles of signification that might
elude our focus on plot, character, and even narrative form? As
we answer these questions, we shall see that Ulysses teaches us
how to read itself, or, put another way, that it creates its own
readers.
Reading Ulysses depends on understanding Joyce's concept of
metaphor and how it defines the fundamental relationship be-
tween words and reality. The significant form of Ulysses depends
7
8 Reading joyce's ((Ulysses"

upon the kinds of metaphorical substitutions Joyce makes when

he lets Bloom and Stephen signify and be signified by historical
figures. Reading the novel establishes how Stephen and Bloom
become metaphors or signifiers for one another as well as, in
their potential fusion, a metaphor for the creative presence who
narrates the novel. It is not too much to say that much of the
originality and power of Ulysses depends upon its examination of
the possibilities of metaphor.

I THE GENRE OF ULYSSES

Ralph Rader has written, "[Ulysses] is to be understood as

deriving its significance from, and a continuation of, Uoyce's]
own experience which requires the reader to understand the
relation between Joyce and Stephen and Bloom as quite definite
and unambiguous" . 1 Rader continues, "The separation of the
book from life is the direct manifestation of its connection with it,
since the goal of fictional recreation requires, as autobiography
does not, that the artist break the explicit premise of connection
and with it the emotional bond to his represented experience. He
is to recreate his life as if he were not part of it. But this
apartness, or detachment, was nevertheless meant to be under-
stood as a fully implicit relation." 2 We are indebted to Rader for
focusing on the unique formal relationship between author and
novel, and for proposing an aesthetic which includes the prin-
ciple that a book's significance may depend in part on knowing
something of what happened to the author between the time of
the action and the time the book was written. Recognizing the
validity of such a principle is obviously crucial to a book in
which the relationship between author and major character is
often autobiographical: ''Joyce's shifts of style from episode to
episode are intended as a continuous manifestation of the pre-
sence which everywhere translates the random real to the order
of art." 3
However, we must ask whether we can read Ulysses as if
Joyce's "fictional recreation" enabled him to "break the explicit
premise of connection and with it the emotional bond to his
represented experience". Or is the explicit relationship between
Ulysses and Joyce's life - particularly as presented in Richard
 Form and Metaphor in "Ulysses" 9

EHmann's canonical biography- inevitably part of our reading

experience? I shall argue that we must see the fictional presence
as a character within the imagined world whose full significance
depends on a dynamic and varying relationship with the creator.
Just as the explanatory Talmud has become part of the Torah
for observant Jews, and just as for believing Christians biblical
interpretation is as much a part of God's message as the New
Testament, the biographical and critical apparatus has become
part of the process of reading Ulysses. By distributing his sche-
mata for the novel, and by helping Budgen write his early
biography and Gilbert write his critical study, Joyce deliberately
and willfully shaped the interpretation of Ulysses. It is as if God
had given both the Holy Word and the subsequent exegeses.
Perhaps we should first turn to joyce's own discussion of genre
in Portrait:

[A]rt necessarily divides itself into three forms progressing

from one to the next. These forms are: the lyrical form, the
form wherein the artist presents his image in immediate
relation to himself; the epical form, the form wherein he
presents his image in mediate relation to himself and to others;
the dramatic form, the form wherein he presents his image in
immediate relation to others .... The lyrical form is in fact the
simplest verbal vesture of an instant of emotion .... He who
utters it is more conscious of the instant of emotion than of
himself as feeling emotion. The simplest epical form is seen
emerging out of lyrical literature when the artist prolongs and
broods upon himself as the centre of an epical event and this
form progresses till the centre of emotional gravity is equidis-
tant from the artist himself and from others. The narrative is
no longer purely personal. The personality of the artist passes
into the narrative itself, flowing round and round the persons
and the action like a vital sea. . . . The dramatic form is
reached when the vitality which has flowed and eddied round
each person fills every person with such vital force that he or
she assumes a proper and intangible esthetic life. The person-
ality ofthe artist, at first a cry or a cadence or a mood and then
a fluid and lambent narrative, finally refines itself out of
existence, impersonalises itself, so to speak. The esthetic
image in the dramatic form is life purified in and reprojected
from the human imagination. (P. 214-5) 4
10 Reading Joyce's "Ulysses"

In applying Joyce's aesthetic to his own works, we should think

ofliterary works not as purely lyrical, epical, or dramatic, but as
mixed modes that contain aspects of more than one genre. A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man begins in the lyrical mode, but,
to the degree to which it is ironic, approaches the epical mode. If
we understand the relationship in Ulysses between the three
genres as a dynamic process - as a trialogue among them - we
can better understand the novel's form and meaning. Thus in
Ulysses Joyce progresses from the lyrical to the epical and finally
to the dramatic. The first three chapters oscillate between the
lyrical perspective of Stephen and the epical perspective of
Joyce's omniscient but not entirely distanced narrator, a narra-
tor who is never far from Stephen's consciousness and who does
not enter into the consciousness of any other characters. By
using the lyrical mode, Joyce establishes the continuity with
Portrait of both Stephen and of the narrative presence, and calls
attention to the process of fictionally re-examining and recreat-
ing his own life. By allowing the lyrical mode to dominate over
the epical mode with which Portrait had concluded, he shows
that Stephen has taken a step backward in his artistic develop-
ment, for the mature artist needs the objectivity Stephen lacks.
Gradually, as we shall see, Joyce distances himself from
Stephen and establishes him as a potential character in an epic
- the character of the young artist trying to find himself amidst
personal and historical confusion so that he might develop into
the writer of a novel like Ulysses. Presenting Bloom is the means
by which the Joyce-presence places his characters - not only
Bloom, but Stephen, too - at a distance from himself. Joyce
conceived Bloom as a character that would enable him to
achieve the epical mode ("prolong[ing] and brood[ing] upon
himself as the centre of an epical event").
Joyce's desire to objectify part of himself in a character that
seems to be the diametric opposite of Stephen, the artist based
on his younger self, was probably influenced by Wilde's theory of
masques; Wilde believed that we must assume a masque in order
to liberate ourselves from our customary conventional daytime
selves. Yet for the very reason that Bloom is still enough of the
mature Joyce who is living in Europe and writing Ulysses, Joyce
had to struggle to achieve the objectivity and distance that are
the prerequisites of the dramatic mode. Perhaps we can say that
beginning with "Circe" and climaxing with "Penelope," the
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