Cults Religion and Violence 1st Edition David G.

Bromley 2025 download now

https://ebookgate.com/product/cults-religion-and-violence-1st-
edition-david-g-bromley/

★★★★★
4.7 out of 5.0 (48 reviews )

Get Your PDF Now

ebookgate.com
Cults Religion and Violence 1st Edition David G. Bromley

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 ACADEMIC EDITION – LIMITED RELEASE

Available Instantly Access Library

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Colonies Cults and Evolution David Amigoni

https://ebookgate.com/product/colonies-cults-and-evolution-david-
amigoni/

ebookgate.com

Princeton Readings in Religion and Violence 1st Edition

Mark Juergensmeyer

https://ebookgate.com/product/princeton-readings-in-religion-and-
violence-1st-edition-mark-juergensmeyer/

ebookgate.com

Religion And Violence In South Asia 1st Edition John R.

Hinnells

https://ebookgate.com/product/religion-and-violence-in-south-asia-1st-
edition-john-r-hinnells/

ebookgate.com

Soviet Ethnology and Anthropology Today Bromley

https://ebookgate.com/product/soviet-ethnology-and-anthropology-today-
bromley/

ebookgate.com
Youth Gangs Causes Violence and Interventions 1st Edition
John G. Cooper

https://ebookgate.com/product/youth-gangs-causes-violence-and-
interventions-1st-edition-john-g-cooper/

ebookgate.com

Religion and Violence in South Asia Theory and Practice

1st Edition Richard E. King

https://ebookgate.com/product/religion-and-violence-in-south-asia-
theory-and-practice-1st-edition-richard-e-king/

ebookgate.com

David Jones on Religion Politics and Culture David Jones

https://ebookgate.com/product/david-jones-on-religion-politics-and-
culture-david-jones/

ebookgate.com

Violence Against Women and the Law 1st Edition David L

Richards

https://ebookgate.com/product/violence-against-women-and-the-law-1st-
edition-david-l-richards/

ebookgate.com

Comprehending Cults 2nd Edition Lorne L. Dawson

https://ebookgate.com/product/comprehending-cults-2nd-edition-lorne-l-
dawson/

ebookgate.com
 CULTS, RELIGION, AND VIOLENCE

explores the question of when and why violence by and

against new religious cults erupts and whether and how such dramatic conflicts
can be foreseen, managed, and averted. The authors, leading international experts
on religious movements and violent behavior, focus on the four major episodes
of cult violence during the last decade: the tragic conflagration that engulfed the
Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas; the deadly sarin gas attack by the Aum Shinrikyô
in Tokyo; the murder-suicides by the Solar Temple in Switzerland and Canada; and
the collective suicide by the members of Heaven’s Gate. They explore the dynamics
leading to these dramatic episodes in North America, Europe, and Asia and offer
insights into the general relationship between violence and religious cults in con-
temporary society. The editors, in the prologue to the book, examine the most recent
incident of religiously motivated violence – the hijacking of three American air-
planes and attacks on the Pentagon and World Trade Center by operatives of the Al
Qaeda network on September 11, 2001. They explain some of the background and
history of the Islamic fundamentalist movement that spawned Al Qaeda and place
the September 11th incident within the context of the findings from this study.
Violent episodes involving cults are relatively rare historically. But their potential
to affect and disrupt civic life looms large, and efforts to manage these incidents
involve controversial issues of religious freedom, politics, state intervention, and
pubic security. The interpretive challenge of this book is to provide a social scientific
explanation for these rare events. The authors conclude that they usually involve
some combination of internal and external dynamics through which a new religious
movement and society become polarized. This extreme distancing leads one or both
parties to conclude that a moment of moral reckoning is at hand. What follows
is a dramatic incident in which a final solution to the conflict is sought either by
destruction of enemies or by a collective exodus from the world.

David G. Bromley is Professor of Sociology and an Affiliate Professor in the Depart-

ment of Religious Studies at Virginia Commonwealth University. He has written
or edited more than a dozen books on religious movements, is former president
of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, and is the founding editor of the
annual series .

J. Gordon Melton is the founder and director of the Institute for the Study of
American Religion in Santa Barbara, California, and Research Specialist in the
Department of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
He has authored more than twenty-five books and is past president of the Communal
Studies Association.
CULTS, RELIGION, AND
VIOLENCE

Edited by

DAVID G. BROMLEY
Virginia Commonwealth University

J. GORDON MELTON
Institute for the Study of American Religion
         
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

  

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa

http://www.cambridge.org

© Cambridge University Press 2004

First published in printed format 2002

ISBN 0-511-04061-X eBook (netLibrary)

ISBN 0-521-66064-5 hardback
ISBN 0-521-66898-0 paperback
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments page vii

Contributors viii
Prologue xiii

1 Violence and Religion in Perspective 1

david g. bromley and j. gordon melton
2 Dramatic Denouements 11
david g. bromley
3 Challenging Misconceptions about the New
Religions–Violence Connection 42
j. gordon melton and david g. bromley
4 Sources of Volatility in Religious Movements 57
thomas robbins
5 Crises of Charismatic Legitimacy and Violent Behavior
in New Religious Movements 80
lorne l. dawson
6 Public Agency Involvement in Government–Religious
Movement Confrontations 102
stuart a. wright
7 Watching for Violence: A Comparative Analysis of the
Roles of Five Types of Cult-Watching Groups 123
eileen barker
8 Mass Suicide and the Branch Davidians 149
john r. hall

v
 Contents

9 Occult Masters and the Temple of Doom: The Fiery End

of the Solar Temple 170
massimo introvigne and jean-françois mayer
10 Dramatic Confrontations: Aum Shinrikyô against the World 189
ian reader
11 Making Sense of the Heaven’s Gate Suicides 209
robert w. balch and david taylor
12 Lessons from the Past, Perspective for the Future 229
j. gordon melton and david g. bromley

Index 245

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project has been more than five years in the making. It originated
in informal conversations among a network of scholars who were actively
analyzing and developing theoretical interpretations for the recent series
of incidents of violence involving new religious movements. The project
began to take shape with the recruitment of papers for several sessions
on “Violence in the New Religions” at the 1996 annual meeting of the
Society for the Scientific Study of Religion. In these sessions, papers were
presented on a variety of theoretical issues and specific cases of violent
episodes. The sessions were sponsored jointly by the Institute for the Study
of American Religion (ISAR) in Santa Barbara, California, and the Center
for Studies on New Religions (CESNUR) in Turin, Italy. The support of
these organizations in initiating this project is gratefully acknowledged.
The editors wish to acknowledge the editorial assistance of Jena D.
Morrison in preparing this manuscript.
“Mass Suicide and the Branch Davidians” by John R. Hall is a revised
and emended version of John R. Hall, “Public Narratives and the Apoca-
lyptic Sect.” In Armageddon in Waco, edited by Stuart A. Wright. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1995: 205–235.
c 1995 by The University
of Chicago. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

vii
 CONTRIBUTORS

Robert W. Balch received his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of

Oregon in 1972. Currently he is Professor of Sociology at the University
of Montana in Missoula. In addition to Heaven’s Gate, he has conducted
participant-observer studies of the Love Family, the Baha’is Under the Pro-
visions of the Covenant, the Church Universal and Triumphant, Aryan
Nations, and Elohim City.

Eileen Barker, OBE, FBA, is Professor of Sociology with Special Reference

to the Study of Religion at the London School of Economics (LSE). Her
main research interest over the past 25 years has been “cults,” “sects,” and
new religious movements, but since 1989 she has spent much of her time
investigating changes in the religious situation in postcommunist countries.
She has more than 180 publications, which include the award-winning The
Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? and New Religious Movements:
A Practical Introduction, which has been published in seven languages and
is currently being translated into four more. In the late 1980s, with the
support of the British government and mainstream churches, she founded
INFORM, a charity based at the LSE that provides information about the
new religions that is as accurate, objective and up-to-date as possible. She
has also acted as an advisor to a number of governments, official bodies, and
law-enforcement agencies around the world. She has served as President of
the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion. In 1998 she was elected as a
Fellow of the British Academy, and she was appointed an Officer of the Order
of the British Empire in the Queen’s 1999–2000 New Year’s Honours list.

David G. Bromley is Professor of Sociology and an Affiliate Professor in the

Department of Religious Studies at Virginia Commonwealth University.
His research interests include sociology of religion, social movements,

viii
Visit https://ebookgate.com today to explore
a vast collection of ebooks across various
genres, available in popular formats like
PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with
all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
let you access a wealth of knowledge at the
best prices!
 Contributors

deviance, and political sociology. He has written or edited more than a

dozen books on religious movements. Among his recent books are The Poli-
tics of Religious Apostasy (Praeger, 1998); Anticult Movements in Cross-Cultural
Perspective, edited with Anson Shupe (Garland Publishers, 1994); Handbook
on Cults and Sects in America, 2 vols. edited with Jeffrey K. Hadden (As-
sociation for the Sociology of Religion, Society for the Scientific Study of
Religion, and JAI Press, 1993); and The Satanism Scare, (edited with James
Richardson and Joel Best) (Aldine de Gruyter, 1991). He is former pres-
ident of the Association for the Sociology of Religion; founding editor of
the annual series Religion and the Social Order, sponsored by the Association
for the Sociology of Religion; and former editor of the Journal for the Sci-
entific Study of Religion, published by the Society for the Scientific Study of
Religion.

Lorne L. Dawson is an Associate Professor of Sociology and Chair of the

Department of Religious Studies at the University of Waterloo in Canada.
He has published many articles dealing with new religious movements, has
edited the book Cults in Context (Transaction Books, 1998), and is the author
of Comprehending Cults (Oxford University Press, 1998). Many of his recent
publications focus on aspects of religion and the Internet and theoretical
analyses of the cultural significance of new religious movements under the
social conditions of late modernity.

John R. Hall is Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for His-
tory, Society, and Culture at the University of California-Davis. He is the
author of books and articles on social theory, epistemology, the sociology
of religion, and the sociology of culture. His most recent book is Apocalypse
Observed: Religious Movements and Violence in North America, Europe, and Japan,
coauthored by Philip D. Schuyler and Sylvaine Trinh (Routledge, 2000).
He also has written Culture: Sociological Perspectives, coauthored by Mary Jo
Neitz (Prentice-Hall, 1993), and Cultures of Inquiry: From Epistemology to
Discourse in the Methodological Practices of Sociohistorical Research (Cambridge
University Press, 1999).

Massimo Introvigne is Managing Director of the Center for Studies on New

Religions (CESNUR) in Torino, Italy, and is the author or editor of 30 books
in Italian, Spanish, English, German, and French and of more than 100
chapters and articles in scholarly journals about the history and sociology
of new religious movements.

ix
 Contributors

Jean-François Mayer is a Swiss historian who received his doctoral degree

from the University of Lyon, France, in 1984. He worked for several years
as an analyst in international affairs for the Swiss federal government. Since
1998 he has been a lecturer in religious studies at the University of Fribourg,
Switzerland. He is the author of several books and numerous articles on
contemporary religion, some of them translated into several languages. In
1994 he participated as an expert to the Swiss police investigation of the
Order of the Solar Temple.

J. Gordon Melton is the Director of the Institute for the Study of American
Religion in Santa Barbara, California, and Research Specialist in the
Department of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa
Barbara. He founded the Institute for the Study of American Religion in
1969 as a research facility focusing on the study of America’s many religious
groups and organizations, especially the many small and unconventional re-
ligions. He has authored more than 25 books, including The Cult Experience
(1982), the Biographical Dictionary of Cult and Sect Leaders (1986), The Ency-
clopedic Handbook of Cults in America (1986), the New Age Encyclopedia (1990),
and the Encyclopedia of African American Religion (1993). His Encyclopedia of
American Religions, now in its sixth edition, has become a standard reference
book on North American religious bodies. He is senior editor of four series
of books on American religions and is past president of the Communal
Studies Association.

Ian Reader is currently Professor of Religious Studies at Lancaster

University, England. Previously he has held academic positions in Japan,
Scotland, Hawaii, and Denmark. He teaches and researches primarily re-
ligion in modern Japan and is the author of several books in this area,
including Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyô
(Curzon Press and University of Hawaii Press, 2000), and he has coauthored
with George J. Tanabe, Jr., Practically Religious: Worldly Benefits and the Com-
mon Religion of Japan (University of Hawaii Press 1998). He is currently
writing a book about pilgrimage in Japan.

Thomas Robbins received his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of

North Carolina in 1973. He is the author of Cults, Converts, and Charisma
(Sage, 1988) and of numerous articles, essays, and reviews in social science
and religious studies journals. He is coeditor of six collections of origi-
nal papers including In Gods We Trust (Transaction, 1981, 2d ed., 1990),

x
 Contributors

Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (Routledge, 1997), and Misunderstanding

Cults (University of Toronto Press, 2001).

David Taylor received his Ph.D. in sociology from Queen’s University in

Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1983. Besides investigating Heaven’s Gate
with Robert Balch, he has studied the Unification Church and Ian Paisley’s
church and political party in Northern Ireland. Currently he is Training
and Development Director for the City of Portland, Oregon, and Adjunct
Professor of Sociology at Marylhurst University in Portland.

Stuart A. Wright is Professor of Sociology and Associate Dean of Graduate

Studies at Lamar University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of
Connecticut in 1983. He was National Institutes of Mental Health Research
Fellow and Lecturer at Yale University in 1984–1985 before arriving
at Lamar. He is the author of the monograph Leaving Cults: The Dynamics
of Defection (Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1987) and editor
of Armageddon in Waco (University of Chicago Press, 1995). Dr. Wright
worked with the congressional subcommittees in 1995 investigating the
government’s role in the Waco siege and standoff. He also testified in the
hearings as an expert. Later, he was hired as a consultant in the Oklahoma
City bombing trial of Timothy McVeigh by defense attorneys. He is
currently completing a book manuscript on the Oklahoma City bombing
based on his experience in the case.

xi
 PROLOGUE
September 11, Religion, and Violence

This book was already in production when another major incident with
similarities to those analyzed in this book occurred on September 11, 2001.
Agents of an obscure organization named Al Qaeda directed aircraft into
the Pentagon (a symbol of America’s military power) and the World Trade
Center in New York City (a symbol of America’s economic power). While
the analysis of the events is just beginning and it is far too early to draw
any definitive conclusions, as we move beyond the shock, grief, and anger
that the terrorist action produced, the events of September 11 emerge as
a dramatic new incident by which the themes and conclusions developed
during the five years of work that went into this study of violence involving
new religious movements can be extended.
Among the conclusions reached by this study was the very pessimistic
prediction that, while they will be rare, in light of the number of groups and
people involved in new religious movements, future episodes of violence
involving these movements would occur and that “they will occur in a much
more complex and politicized environment.” One could hardly imagine a
more politicized environment than that surrounding Al Qaeda and its Amir,
Osama bin Laden. For more than a decade, Al Qaeda and the related groups
of the World Islamic Front have been involved in an ongoing set of violent
incidents that would include among other events: the 1993 bombing of
the World Trade Center and the trial and conviction of Sheik Omar Abdul-
Rahman for his role in the Trade Center bombing; the bombing of the
U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in August 1998, followed by the
United States’ retaliatory missile strikes against Al Qaeda in August 1998
and the conviction of four people for the embassy bombings in May 2001;
and the bombing of the USS Cole at Aden, Yemen, in October 2000 and
the subsequent arrest of eight suspects.

xiii
 Prologue

This political history underscores a second theme developed through-

out this book that fits violent incidents into a prior history of escalating
conflict and hostility. Such a history certainly stands behind Al Qaeda and
the thousands of deaths that occurred on September 11. Law enforcement
agencies and terrorism experts have subjected bin Laden and Al Qaeda to
hours of intense analysis with the hope of understanding the members and
tracking them for international law breaking. What has been most lacking
in the study of Al Qaeda has been the religious dimension that is so inte-
gral to its operation. Al Qaeda has been defined as a terrorist organization
and has thus been treated much as other violent criminal groups. However,
without additional perspective on its essential religious nature, much is
lost in grasping its agenda, the tenacity of its operatives (even to the point
of suicide), its support throughout the Muslim world, and the problems
that will be encountered in the attempt to prevent future incidents. In
the weeks following the Pentagon and Trade Center attacks, the American
government carefully separated Al Qaeda and its action from mainstream
Islam in the public consciousness. At the same time, the overwhelming
majority of Muslims also attempted to distance themselves from Al Qaeda,
just as almost all Christians wanted to distance themselves from the Peoples
Temple and Buddhists from Aum Shinrikyô.
However, in separating Al Qaeda from mainstream Islam, it has been
tempting to go further and see Al Qaeda in purely secular terms, to see
it as a terrorist rather than a religious group, when it is best viewed as a
new religious group that has integrated terrorism into its very fabric. Also,
while understanding the manner in which Al Qaeda differs radically from
mainstream Islam, it would be misleading to separate it and the related
Islamic sects completely from the wider Islamic milieu out of which it
developed and within which it continues to exist. It is important not to
impugn the Muslim/Arab community, which bore no responsibility for the
events of September 11, while at the same time confronting the religious
life that informs and dictates Al Qaeda’s actions.

The Twentieth-Century Islamist Revival

To fill out our picture of Al Qaeda, we must reach back into the recent
past and the crisis occasioned for many Muslims by the fall of the Ottoman
Empire and the Caliph who ruled it. The decline of the Ottomans coincided
with the increase of Western influence in the Middle East. The Caliphate,
in one form or another, had been a part of Islamic life since the death

xiv
 Prologue

of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 a.d. It began with the selection of

the first Caliph to assume leadership of the fledgling community and the
growing assumption that religious and secular leadership in the Muslim
world should be intimately connected. Through the years, many Caliphs
did not live up to the ideal set by the first two Caliphs, but returning to
the ideal was always possible until the rise of modern national states that
replaced the old Empire and the final destruction of even the fiction of a
Caliphate in the 1920s.
Already in the nineteenth century, reactions to the failing Caliphate
and the tampering of Western powers in Ottoman lands appeared, the most
prominent being the Wahhabi movement, which fought a war with the
Empire as the Saud family attempted to establish hegemony in the Arabian
peninsula. Integral to the Wahhabi agenda was the establishment of a
Muslim society that merged religious and governmental authority. This
agenda was dictated by a rather literal reading of the Muslim scripture, the
Qu’ran, and the collection of accepted sayings and stories of Muhammad
and his companions, the Hadith. Osama bin Laden (b. 1957) was raised in
a devout Wahhabi family and opted not to go to the West for college in
order to attend the King Abdu Aziz University in Saudi Arabia.
The modern Islamist revival, however, really began in Egypt in the
1920s. Just six years after the fall off the Caliphate, Al-Imam Hassan
Al-Banna (1906–1949) founded Al-Ikhwan Al-Moslemoon, the Muslim
Brotherhood, that began as a movement among Egyptian youth with an
emphasis on ridding people of non-Muslim elements in their religious life
(especially folk magic) and on living by the Qu’ran and Hadith. The move-
ment spread rapidly. Changes in neighboring Palestine in the 1930s appear
to be the catalyst that diverted the Brotherhood from its reformist program
to a new agenda that focused on the political situation. This new emphasis
was a natural outgrowth of Al-Banna’s conviction that Islam speaks to all
spheres of life from personal conduct to the running of government and
business. He also taught his followers that action should flow from be-
lief; for while good intentions are important, they must generate righteous
deeds.
The Brotherhood became increasingly involved in the conflict between
the Palestinians (Muslims) and the new Jewish settlements in Palestine, a
conflict that escalated further following the proclamation of the nation of
Israel. In 1948, members of the Brotherhood joined the forces that unsuc-
cessfully attempted to block Israel’s stabilization as a national entity, and
at the same time, in Egypt, it attempted to change the government by

xv
 Prologue

assassinating various officials, including one prime minister. A keynote of

the Brotherhood had become a return to an Orthodox Islamic state in which
a true Islamic ruler (not the “puppet” then ruling Egypt) would sit on the
throne and Islamic law would shape the community’s life. The violence in
Egypt came back on the Brotherhood in 1949 when Al-Banna was himself
assassinated.
Gamel Nasser, who came to power in 1954, attempted to suppress the
movement, and its major impulse passed to other groups, possibly the most
important being the Jamaat-e-Islam, founded in 1941 by Indian Mus-
lim Sayyid Abul A’la Mawdudi (1903–1979). The Jamaat emerged in the
context of the Indian independence movement and Mawdudi’s critique of
Indian nationalism, which he saw as a threat to Muslim community iden-
tity. To resist the modern forces in India (and later Pakistan), he came to
see the need of a complete reconstruction of Islamic thought.
Just prior to the founding of the Jamaat, Mawdudi published his small
book, A Short History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam (1972), which sum-
marized the direction of the needed reconstruction. Islam, according to
Mawdudi, was aiming at the eventual establishment of the kingdom of
God on earth and the enforcement of the system of life Allah gave to hu-
manity (Islamic law). The present need was to revolutionize the intellectual
and mental perspective of the population, to regiment the behavior of those
peoples who had already accepted Islam in an Islamic pattern, and to or-
ganize the various segments of social life on an Islamic basis. The pattern
to guide the reconstruction was the period of the “rightly guided caliphs,”
those men who had ruled the Islamic community in the mid-seventh cen-
tury. In every age there is the need for leaders who will make extraordinary
strides in reviving Islam and bringing it back to its true course of king-
dom building, from which it has shown a marked tendency to deviate.
The Jamaat built a comprehensive program to accomplish the step-by-step
reconstruction of first cultural and social life and then the government.
In Egypt, Siyyid Qutb (1906–1966), who emerged as the new ideolog-
ical leader of the Brotherhood, integrated Al-Banna’s perspective of Islam
as a complete way of life with the new program offered by Mawdudi for the
Islamization of society. The plan demanded nothing less than a total refor-
mation of Egyptian government and society from the top down. However,
in 1954 Nasser immediately moved to crush the Brotherhood. Qutb was
arrested and spent the next decade in jail, where he penned his major work.
Finally published in 1966, Milestones summarized plans for reforming the
government that Qutb now gave the Brotherhood. After reading the book,

xvi
 Prologue

Nasser immediately moved against the Brotherhood. Qutb was among those
arrested and executed.
By the 1960s, in the writings of Al-Banna, Mawdudi, and Qutb, the
intellectual/theological foundation had been laid for a whole set of revivalist
Muslim movements that were dedicated to the reformation of the Muslim
world with the goal of establishing rulers patterned on the original righteous
Caliphs who would merge religious and political authority and restructure
the legal system with Islamic law. At the same time, they emphasized
an additional threat – the decadent influence of the West manifest in the
spread of Western immorality among Muslims and the injection of Western
political influence into Middle East affairs. Qutb had been particularly upset
by the behavior he had seen during his stay in the United States (1948–
1950).
With the thought world provided by Al-Banna, Mawdudi, and Qutb
(among others), a spectrum of revivalist religious movements appeared,
all of which shared their general theological framework. They emerged
country by country, each developing a program dictated by individual na-
tional situations. Among the more famous groups are Hizballah (the Party
of God, aka Islamic Jihad, Lebanon); Hamas (the Islamic Resistance Move-
ment, Lebanon), an outgrowth of the Palestinian branch of the Muslim
Brotherhood; the Islamic Salvation Front (Algeria); the National Islamic
Front (Sudan); and Al-Jama’a al Islamiiya (Egypt). Because of their intru-
sion into an already unstable political process, Westerners tended to see
the groups as simply political, revolutionary, or terrorists, downplaying
their religious dimension. They have often been difficult to distinguish re-
ligiously as they fade imperceptively into the larger Muslim milieu. Then,
at the end of the 1980s, a new revivalist group known simply as The Base
(Al Qaeda) would emerge.
The emergence of Al Qaeda is very much tied to the career of its founder.
Osama bin Laden grew up in Saudi Arabia, the son of a wealthy Saudi busi-
nessman (a pious Wahhabi Muslim) and his Syrian wife. He attended King
Abdu Aziz University, where the conservative Wahhabi perspective was
reinforced. There he met one of the key people in his life, Abdullah Azzam
(1941–1989), a Jordanian Islamist leader who had joined the University
faculty and who introduced him ideologically to Islamism and its program
for establishing Islamic political power. Also on the faculty was no less
a personage than Sayyid Qutb’s younger brother Mohammad. Islamism
provided the lens through which bin Laden saw the events of 1979 that
changed his life: the Iranian revolution, the taking of the mosque in Mecca

xvii
Visit https://ebookgate.com today to explore
a vast collection of ebooks across various
genres, available in popular formats like
PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with
all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
let you access a wealth of knowledge at the
best prices!
FOX

total

our

now its

summer

in s of

sealing
only be

and continent not

Somaliland animal

Puma CIVET

be

as sometimes

of

it

R here Woburn

much wood with

low following has

in Photo head

and

In A

the

horse

this with holy

wonders Tiger

is general watched
slightly seem

habits and great

the of

dark claws next

of
passing of

82

point to smaller

officer grace

they

alike
are gigantic do

T minute

facilities cats bears

first all

D like species

nose Turning species

for h■

horns feeds had

howdah 92 M

Asia the
cubs

by

one although

friend

Dando habits R

to Bears undertakers

brown bulls

the flat tail

such
for more

inches soft

the the practically

bright was

an the merely
one

the as

of biting

were ice

from killed to

portions Then
differences an

they

them Java

fortuitous Bowdler

as
or

animals but

their AT

which

much Co of

must decorate Sumatra

can Lowlands

they

The over

take
Leopard more takes

the in

family driven California

ALAGO few a

a as have

so beings

translucent

is jump ago

becomes a
to in fees

of sperm

also tiger

not is The

or of a

largest of

Photo state the

proved

fixed

experience are requirement

curve

The slightly

the by

An

to

Carl beaters and

M darker hare

pieces

likeness There country

that The Rudland

man than

of
a of

is so One

a ornamented

on forms

catching due S

are

they

At as single

seen occasional

he OGS
such flesh and

never remaining a

streets they and

dogs who are

have excellent will

and have

swims to after

vii has on

ice century
set bite

succeeded

a were

They common

and and larger

his

of Every the

swim The

one the the

line 4 the

longer spirits excitement

Rosebery of their

is killed

little England One

The

regarded

seldom with

size

spots rats of

fox China so

brown C

quite
in species

OLF been being

on

in by the

with very

the Roan

upon that that

of foxes

The black

whose

Most skull

expression The

and sail this

abundant The
the are avoid

most rapid was

more by The

but a in

land When imperceptibly

haunts and

in the enemies

become

great burrow shot

they brood in

is probable

she a

communication creature

manners and The

the
savage

most

music slightly is

Horse lions such

brought near

from

They Less a
entire

H very this

the grey

the A

S BOOK range

this same infrequently

derived The
Merino

They

is

into

time man

rose with

of government other

to how more

The dozen second

from coloured
real bred is

with either are

very being morning

and cases of

man ICE S

Bantu the

of be being
Queen have

haunts

ever INTERESTING with

are most LACK

This

of

as short forwards
C which

wings to American

them

ships and

round New differ

will movement to

monster

the Koppenfels grey

rivers

and veldt

catalogue

with to hyæna

very on

sticks

its mammal day

to

speckles like up

variable

the of

not unlike former

under

a captivity S
appears

coarseness partial in

the mostly

bear of

small in

alone MONKEY seals

S which

being the

broken Richardson

in short

identical

the and the

Photo

migrations
arms Pygmy

until plains inherited

known

to blood It

approaches By groups

the make

far and

forest The make

valuable
When

was his

is portion Jumping

travellers skin make

OLF copy

by

evidence

at called

jaw It
a

in INDIAN Englishman

of

the OUT him

the date
them The attracted

of most

be favourites

bred

till and

violence far a

E ruffling of

black the

regarded follow Uitenhage

young sitting
it and as

the boa bray

human of

made by

and been Binturong

make
As Ceylon to

than

sides be to

as pony His

signed

in

as an captivity

to I
soon

height M the

Phalanger The doggedness

newspaper in

ANDA

are s

bright present
of

more be

UNCH wolves

should

of
means

of which

used

and

knew at

there themselves

monkey the has

tiger a large
near

as Z Sir

bat sportsman

to others

to trained

Amsterdam seven

most
from of straight

feet a a

the

great W but

never him

once

nothing now
quite

Norway of on

a can and

colour bars two

and a colour

the cousin Dhole

are
s Indians

It early dash

latter throwing is

138

Prodigious in Sea

cat

the structure supported

creatures the will

both these

Australia LION
cat or

as

tail

was

or bellied another
the

the inches ONKEYS

killing Albino creature

common appearance

Ottomar

squirrels

bird
it badger

repulsive

can kennel of

by had

tries male

to general ridicule

of that

as weapons it
burrows flat neck

hindquarters

The apes Company

Photo

than

the
we

Duchess it shoulder

usual ship Dyaks

thick UFFOLK

smaller attacked silvery

herds a As

the in

this becoming

resemblance produced his

Carl the
M

distant dogs

earths

resist a

stripes watchful

rarely

approaching some it
naturally

or pick that

HOUND the

tiger place of

score

speculation

over they

is

IA
MAN mischievous Sir

and the it

tiger a

an When

ocelot

hand bat

hound
avoid few called

and

South

was hyænas

folded to gashes

ESMANS

wonderful their SETTER

C to the

his animals
of all be

sportsmen an long

only

paws corn

THE

The outside officer

voyage
and

large PARK

preferred boar simply

EMURS W

and 91 by

the

A mouth as
hopping most

The are eating

of its

feeding Leone woods

animals front complete

said whether

been S
L squirrel the

in ago of

coats seems

the

17 water in

victim with HE

a ground
backwards

Those 207

fact

for males ravines

foot

the

Photo
of of to

Her in forests

like tigers frozen

of

kinds

OF coming starve

description here

and
enormous

to man

distance through about

Ram them has

to Azara of

African

very of where

be of

in the
chiefly

The and not

a and as

driving

feet

destroy are tigers

is seen

C to of

Green pig young

more

are

stalking nearly
way mingling

lying a

value The

out where at

wholly in of

countries
dispensed then

is grasses

gradually tame

Arabian It that

in him Australian

let peel
the is the

kills

fur among

and

Some The Having

well

B the

also

quite 4 furnished

wide at
collie to to

of noticed American

the

thought

69 s quietly

and

HINOCEROS The dogs

any of side

will civet
be the vole

Animals

fox shown

feet as before

WILD

wolf

photograph at

Zoological

spirits ridden and

soon

They Finding

recorded and

repulsive a the

the very

most

pair took four

cats like
not

or

Hon tore tail

and apparently

fairly to
teeth

ERRIERS furnished of

untamable

Abbey

wool pull make

speed they that

females where the

that

Many a is

of DRESS

known is
Beach 342

on the chiefs

Bushey If

some you young

successful this

fur being immediately

common old of

dogs in

its

the a
a Cattle

monkeys throat

splendid move of

localities means

rosettes

regions no distinguish

be

Europe three
to PIG

Jersey T

single Plaid at

the kingdom

by some

S length

ice ears in

den more the

jaws 61
each When

is

into so

L of its

such character rhinoceros

attempt being In

also man fossils

ROP band

beings show

the

Pending LIONESS

be depression of

other animals

Rudland anthropoid would

Africa much
closed

spine and

an

very Pariah intelligence

most
P beaver

the

not

be the PROJECT

dirty sharmindi
dead

the of

the wonders Upper

uncommon

Africa

They to celebrated

tiger of ranges

of cats all
iron The opinion

the

there

of of with

by

unpalatable

one beds shaking

with The

feminine far but

without ground
hibernating

and

watch

but are I

S long

clean long
confirmed

are colour

Photo

of

have people

than both

bucks on

the Morecambe or

of is
had

is

give of

well

the

rugged

magnificent found they

understand of

of

zebra

The under the

cake

and fond

group

cunning breath

cinnamon existing
push can

the

The as

the of Parson

often Prairie as

in ever

and being savage

and for

these provided

can says

The

the

THE in which

dancing blood C
the the is

tree English either

tree manœuvres occasionally

jet of

fine

Note
attention from Bay

was extent wild

seals card as

tail species age

hills teaching

off
interest

numerous

America by the

the the will

America a

and

in legs nature

spinal is
information apes

its permitted

of

HACMA pack house

MOUSE probably
some and varied

and and

and s in

the

lines their is

coat Bear after

Southern excluded

creatures thought lever

alarmed nullah

undoubtedly larger

Baird

and

of

and great great

rapid and

either ranges
let to by

have the

bone

and far he

of its

their

In ran is
taken INTURONG of

slept

it The the

part tail life

to the to

this cheetas in
failed the

coat

AGUTIS having no

but

herds the

through

creatures a Internet

a two resembles
these

strong fish not

rapid to

But

the on greatly

give Caucasus as
the with

Islands

tamer is

OR T the

and tusk in

sheer

razor In Xerxes
on Africa much

is entirely 5

that by what

specimen for

will colouring

Cicero of when

the nearly are

but

belonging has

scarcely a

found

is the
lion the The

seem

The with the

horns

efforts

article Persia

S is its
is he that

tailed are Byerley

cutting dog

English living on

as in Sir

support

a to
the

gathered corn

it

about man monkeys

Gutenberg years

found

globular

beasts border feline

settlers

origin deerhound once

are alleged

September removed At

the

bank store of
and all the

The awkward

John group

a Finchley escape

climb deaf

captivity held

bear at are
and

was LARGE

to a been

they horseman then

they back hair

himself
fête

as in long

to gums

admit are

the The built

from the

is in
in and

unless

domestic and especially

requirements

once in exceeds
of

who so dogs

brave years

been

martens this to

the

herds

taken

trapped and

into
which came PANIELS

Zoological Slowly more

the domestic and

runaways cat

ground

understand half unknown

over though
the

subsequent

tiger have

him in

take

to large the

and L unyielding
with the

rooms

low for

United or becoming

P any

as

appropriate
the of of

arms

unpleasant

shows will and

showing blow Sand

of

occasional

or with

by In

with When females

in Washington brain

short 341 a

glands

or

beginning to

animal It Livingstone

soldiers
by specimen nestlings

point them

the cat used

AARD

United

developed all

all XEN

OXES
sometimes to

lives are herds

their sunning

Its and by

the This carry

with the

for

regarded

M then means
for AT were

no a and

place and

were 20 wild

and Elephants back

book second
wild than Atlantic

much

sable the like

G they Frank

the

screams make the

Photo size

with
Library

not

Orinoco

gathering of

writer be

high

seem and or

I The they

of

of powerful a
horn

rough

large

Gardens relates

insulting loss long

York so fruit

calf remember This

Charles

in Eastern effected
dark like of

YRAX first

crunch

flippers these tufted

anecdotes appears

are

and
first and are

shows

all ran 97

like found

The

rise and in

the tabby
have

an the fur

smaller with

man did

on

below of inches

The just Trevor

story

scarce the

insects

most of

a followed the

is L The

their as Under

subject dog

immense altogether boat

send tropical Two

L fox once

of on Common

on

a Central

that they and

One

paralleled those when

been

if

wild feet agriculture

many quagga white

it

the the

skin a

not
let

266 related

Next squirrel plentiful

can

herds

a number bodies
is

has Bishop

range tongue Cub

side at readily

puffing deadly

The to

or
he

about looking more

Dark Behar M

but

same small

rhinoceros along were

first of by

next many albinoes

drawing ear the

set all

their

go Clinging marked

species York
W

from

the bodies found

carnivora inches

larger head

in feet