J Food Sci Technol (April 2022) 59(4):1407–1418

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05150-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effect of sorghum flour properties on gluten-free sponge cake

Marı́a Isabel Curti1,2 • Mayara Belorio3 • Pablo M. Palavecino4,5 •

José Manuel Camiña1,2 • Pablo D. Ribotta4,5 • Manuel Gómez3

Revised: 29 January 2021 / Accepted: 26 May 2021 / Published online: 5 June 2021
Ó Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2021

Abstract As the demand for gluten-free products increa- composition, and properties were modified by the milling
ses, the use of sorghum flour becomes a good alternative. processes. Pasting viscosity increased as the particle size of
Sponge cakes are consumed worldwide and suitable for the flours was reduced. Brown or white sorghum flour with
formulations that could replace wheat flour. One of the smaller particle size produced high density and viscosity
most influential parameters on sponge cake quality is the batters with small and homogeneous air bubbles distribu-
flour particle size. In this study, we obtained and charac- tion. Independently of the sorghum variety used, smaller
terized different flours by milling white and brown sor- particle size flour leads to sponge cakes of high volume and
ghum grains and evaluated the influence of flour low firmness.
characteristics on batter properties and gluten-free sponge
cake quality. Flours were produced by pearling, milling Keywords Sorghum
Size particle
Milling
Pearling

and sifting; and were characterized for flour composition, Sponge cake
particle size distribution, damaged starch and water
absorption. The structure, density, and viscosity of the
batters; and specific volume and crumb properties of the Introduction
sponge cake were evaluated. The results showed that flour
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is the fifth cereal in
importance produced worldwide (FAO, 2018). The sor-
Supplementary Information The online version contains
supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197- ghum grain has a high content of starch, about 70% of its
021-05150-0. total mass, with a 3:1 ratio of amylopectin/amylose, and a
high content of phenolic compounds (Palavecino et al.
& Pablo D. Ribotta
[email protected]
2016). Sorghum is suitable for consumption by celiac
people since it does not contain gluten proteins. Sorghum
1
Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra y Ambientales de La marketed according to US grain standards is classified into
Pampa, CONICET-UNLPam, Santa Rosa, La Pampa, four classes: sorghum, white sorghum, tannin sorghum, and
Argentina
mixed sorghum. The white class contains sorghum with a
2
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad white pericarp without a pigmented testa that does not
Nacional de La Pampa (UNLPam), Santa Rosa, La Pampa,
Argentina
contain tannins. The tannin (brown) sorghums have a very
3
definite pigmented testa with levels of condensed tannins
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Agrı́cola y Forestal, Área de
Tecnologı́a de los Alimentos, ETS Ingenierı́as Agrarias,
which may offer resistance to birds and grain mold (de
Universidad de Valladolid, Palencia, España Morais Cardoso et al. 2017). Mixed sorghum contains a
4 blend of kernels with and without pigmented testa.
Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a de Alimentos Córdoba
(ICYTAC), CONICET-UNC, Córdoba, Argentina Hybrids of pigmented testa with condensed tannins,
5 which have a good antioxidant activity, but decrease the
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Fı́sicas y Naturales,
Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, digestibility of proteins and starches, and provide a bitter
Argentina taste (Awika and Rooney 2004). Pearling the grains with

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the use of abrasive rollers and later grinding them through wheat flour enhance the formation of smaller air bubbles,
an impact mill, results in lighter colors flour, with lower increasing the system viscosity during the batter-making
contents of ashes, tannins, and fats (Awika et al. 2005) The process of sponge cakes. Furthermore, the presence of
incorporation of white hybrids to the market, without or smaller, and thus more stable bubbles, allows more effi-
reduced tannin content, is an improvement of its quality for cient air retention into the microstructure, which leads to
food production. larger volumes of sponge cakes. Similar results have been
Sponge cakes are popular and worldwide consumed obtained with gluten-free flour, such as rice flour, where
bakery products that are mainly made with wheat flour. the final volume of cakes was higher when smaller particle
Nowadays, there is a growing demand for the diversification sizes were used (de la Hera 2013).
of gluten-free products. For this reason, other grains, such as The objective of the present study was to analyze the
rice, soy, millet, or barley (de la Hera et al. 2013; Dhen et al. influence of sorghum type, as well as the milling and
2016) and non-traditional ingredients like bananas, carrots or pearling processes, on the flour and batter properties and
pear pomace (Majzoobi et al. 2016; Rocha-Parra et al. 2018) the gluten-free sponge cake quality.
have been explored for the production of cakes.
A limited number of studies looking at the use of sor-
ghum flour as a total replacer of wheat flour have been Materials and methods
conducted to make baked products, such as bread and
cookies (Dayakar Rao et al. 2016; Mancebo et al. 2015; Materials
Trappey et al. 2015).
The making process of sponge cakes consists of mixing One brown and one white commercial hybrid of sorghum
the ingredients and then baking the batter for a certain time grains were used. Brown sorghum grains were provided by
(Wilderjans et al. 2013). A final product with good quality Instituto Nacional de Tecnologı́a Agropecuaria (Estación
is expected to have a uniform and fine crust, and a soft, Experimental Anguil, La Pampa, Argentina) and white
uniform, and moist crumb, and a large volume. These sorghum grains by Praga S.R.L (Córdoba, Argentina).
characteristics are strongly affected by the batter viscosity
and stability. During mixing, small air cells are formed, Flour properties
contributing to achieving a higher cake volume, only if the
continuous phase of batter can retain these air cells during Pearling and milling processes
the baking process (Choi and Baik 2013).
During the early baking phase, the temperature increa- Cleaned sorghum samples (* 2,500 g of each of the sor-
ses, and cake batter viscosity decreases as gas bubbles ghum hybrids) were conditioned at 12% moisture, 24 h
grow due to air expansion. Also, water evaporation before pearling by abrasion, using a laboratory rice
decreased gas solubility in the aqueous phase, and carbon dehuller (PAZ-DTA1, Brazil). The pearling time was set in
dioxide (CO2) is formed by the leavening agents (in case 180 s according to previous experiments. The mass loss
they are added in the formulation) (Godefroidt et al. 2019). during pearling of whole grains was 30.6 ± 0.5% (calcu-
As the temperature rises further, the high temperatures lated by the difference in weight after abrasion).
reached lead to starch gelatinization and protein denatu- The pearled samples were subjected to an impact mill
ration. The cake matrix solidifies turning the liquid batter (Fritsch Pulverisette 16, Germany), equipped with a
into a solid cake structure. 0.75 mm screen. A flour fraction (* 1,000 g) was re-
Due to the water vapor and air expansion during baking, milled in a high-speed action mill (FOSS CyclotecTM 1093,
the pressure inside the gas cells of the cake batter increases. Spain) with a 0.5 mm screen to obtain a smaller particle
Gas cells rapidly expand and at a certain point, the gas cell size distribution.
walls break, gas is released, and the pressure in the open After the re-milling process, one part of each sample
cells drops. If this phenomenon happens before the struc- (* 500 g) was sifting separately in a Bühler MLI 300B
ture has been set, cake collapse occurs. Batter viscosity mill (Switzerland) with a screen of 80 lm, for 20 min to
should remain high enough during baking to minimize gas obtain smaller particle size fractions.
cell loss. If batter viscosity is too low, gas cell loss and A sample of whole white sorghum was impact milled to
formation of starch deposits can be expected (Godefroidt represent a sample without abrasion (0 min) (WWS),
2019). however, no samples of whole brown flour were processed
Numerous works have indicated that the flour particle in this study since their astringent flavor (determined in
size affects the quality of cakes, and more specifically, their previous studies) related to the tannin content.
volume (Choi and Baik 2013; de la Hera et al. 2013). The obtained samples were: whole white sorghum flour
Moiraghi et al. (2013) found that lower particle sizes of (WWS) obtained by impact milling; pearled white and

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brown sorghum flour (PWS and PBS, respectively), both Pasting properties of flour
obtained by pearling and impact milling; micronized
pearled white and brown sorghum flour (PWS-HI and PBS- The apparent viscosity profile of the samples was deter-
HI, respectively), both obtained by pearling and high-speed mined using a rapid visco-analyzer instrument (RVA series
milling; sieved micronized pearled white and brown sor- 4500, Perten Instruments, USA) as described by Palavecino
ghum flour (PWS-80 and PSS-80, respectively), obtained et al. (2016), using the RVA Standard Pasting Method. To
by sieving on 80 lm screen after pearling and micronizing. carry out the assay, 3.5 g of each sample (14% moisture
basis) were suspended in 25 g of distilled water (water
Flour chemical analysis slurries) and placed into the aluminum canisters. To com-
plete the characterization of the flour samples, the tests
The determination of ash, fat, moisture, and protein were also carried out according to Kweon et al. (2009):
(N 9 6.25) was carried out by standard methods (AACC 3.5 g of each sample (14% moisture basis) were suspended
2010). Total carbohydrates (TC) were calculated by dif- in a solution of sucrose 50% and placed into the aluminum
ference with the other components (%). Analyses were canisters.
performed in duplicate. In both cases water and solution of sucrose 50%, dis-
Total polyphenol content (TPF) was quantified using the persions were stirred at 960 rpm for 10 s followed by a
Prussian blue assay, as described by Palavecino et al. constant stirring at 160 rpm until the end of the assay, with
(2016). TPF was expressed as mg of tannic acid per 100 g the temperature maintained at 50 °C for 1 min, increased
of flour. Analyses were performed in duplicate. to 95 °C at min 5 and maintained for 2.5 min, cooled to
Damaged starch content was determined according to 50 °C in 3 min, and finally held at 50 °C for 2 min.
the AACC 76-30A method (AACC 2010). A fungal Thermocline for WindowsÓ software (V 3.15, Perten
enzyme from Aspergillus oryzae (A6211, Sigma Chemical Instruments, Australia) was used to obtain the pasting
Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) was used. Analyses were per- parameters. Pasting parameters of water slurries included
formed in duplicate. pasting temperature (PT, temperature at the moment of
increase in viscosity), peak viscosity (PV, maximum hot-
Flour water-binding capacity (WBC). paste viscosity), final viscosity (FV, viscosity at the end of
the assay), breakdown (BD), and setback (SB).
Sorghum flour samples (500 ± 5 mg, dry basis) (Ps) were The pasting parameters in the solution of sucrose 50%
weighed into 15 mL centrifuge tubes. Then, 6 mL of water obtained were peak viscosity (PV), considered as the
was added to the samples, which were incubated at 25 °C maximum viscosity that the mixture reaches during heat-
for 30 min with shaking carried out at 0, 10, 20, and ing, and final viscosity (FV) (Blanco Canalis et al. 2019).
30 min (Rodrı́guez-Sandoval et al. 2012). After that, the Analyses were performed in duplicate.
tubes were centrifuged (20 min at 3000 9 g) and then
inverted on absorbent paper to drain the excess liquid. Cake making
Finally, the gel was weighed (Pg) and WBC was calculated
as follows: Sponge cakes were elaborated following the formula based
WBC (%) = Pg/Ps 9 100. on sorghum flour (122.5 g, 26.5%), liquid pasteurized egg
Analyses were performed in duplicate. (172 g, 37.2%), sugar (120.25 g, 26.0%), milk powder
(12.5 g, 2.7%), emulsifier (SuperMixo T500, Puratos
Particle size distribution Gerona, Spain) (7 g, 1.5%) and water (27.5 mL, 6.0%). A
two-step mixing procedure was used, as previously
Particle size distribution was determined using a Horiba described by de la Hera et al. (2013). Briefly, all ingredi-
(LA 960, Irvine, CA, USA) laser light diffraction instru- ents, but the flour and milk, were mixed for 2 min at speed
ment, using a dry dispersion module in a vacuum with 6 using a Kitchen-Aid Professional mixer (Kitchen Aid,
airflow of 0.40 MPa and a feeder speed of 75. The repre- USA). After the addition of the milk and flour, the mixing
sentative dry (*6–8% moisture) samples (12 to 15 g) were process was continued for 3 min at speed 8. Cake batter
measured twice. (150 g) was placed into disposable oil-coated aluminum
The following parameters were obtained: volume mean pans (109 9 159 9 38 mm), and the cakes were baked in
diameter, D [4,3]; and the diameters where 10% (D10), an electric oven for 30 min at 190 °C. Two samples were
50% (D50) and 90% (D90) of the population lying below prepared in duplicate and three pieces were taken from
these values, respectively. Also, the particle size polydis- each cake.
persity index or span index associated was calculated as
((D90 - D10)/D50)).

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Batter properties conducted in a room with adequate space, luminosity, and

potable water for the members. Each participant received
Batter density was determined with a standard container samples codified with three numbers and was asked to
(100 cm3) of known weight filled with batter. Batter vis- write the complete evaluation on a paper. Finally, all the
cosity was measured with a rapid visco-analyzer instru- notes were put in common and final observations were
ment (Perten Instruments, USA). A batter sample (15 g) listed.
was subjected to viscosity analysis over a 5 min period
using a constant speed of 160 rpm and a temperature of Statistical analysis
30 °C. Batter density and viscosity analyses were carried
out in duplicate 15 min after mixing the batters. The obtained results were compared by analysis of vari-
To visualize bubbles, a small drop of batter was placed ance (ANOVA) using the least significant difference (LSD)
on a microscope slide. The sample was carefully covered multiple comparison test. Pearson’s test was performed to
with another microscope slide to avoid the inclusion of assess relations between batters and cakes measured
exogenous air bubbles. The slides were compressed under a parameters (significant level at p B 0.05). Statistical anal-
1 kg weight to create a batter layer of uniform thickness. ysis was performed using InfoStat software (Version 13p).
Batter samples were examined at 20 times magnification
using a DM750 microscope (Leica Microsystems, Ger-
many) fitted with an EC3 video camera. Images were Results and discussion
captured using LAS EZ software (Leica Microsystems,
Germany). Flour composition

Sponge cake characteristics Table 1 shows the effect of pearling and milling on the
chemical composition of sorghum flour. The pearling
The evaluation of sponge cake properties was made 24 h process decreased the lipids and ash content of white sor-
after baking as reported in Gómez et al. (2007). Sponge ghum, concerning the whole sample, as was expected due
cake volume was determined using a laser sensor with the to the partial elimination of the bran fraction. In general,
Volscan Profiler (Stable Micro Systems, United Kingdom). pearled white sorghum flour (PWS) exhibited similar pro-
The specific volume was calculated as the ratio of cake tein, lipids, and ash content compared to pearled brown
volume to its mass. The measures were performed on three sorghum flour (PBS). These results were similar to those
sponge cakes. reported in a previous work, where twenty commercial
Crumb texture was measured with a TA-XT2 texture sorghum hybrids from the central region of Argentina were
analyzer (Stable Microsystems, Surrey, UK) equipped with evaluated (Palavecino 2016).
the ‘‘Texture Expert’’ software. A 25 mm diameter cylin- The sieved treatments (PBS-80 and PWS-80) did not
drical aluminum probe was used in a ‘‘Texture Profile show a significant reduction of ash content in neither
Analysis’’ (TPA) double-compression test to compress up brown nor white flour samples. The sieved white and
to 50% of the sample depth at a test speed of 2 mm/s, with brown sorghum flour (PBS-80 and PWS-80) presented a
a 30 s delay between the first and the second compression. significantly lower protein content than all other samples.
Hardness (N), springiness, chewiness, and cohesiveness The thinner particle that passed through the sieve, probably
were calculated from the TPA (Gómez et al. 2012). Texture came from parts of the grain with lower protein content,
analyses were performed on 20 mm thickness central sli- like the floury endosperm. The main components of the
ces. Analyses were performed by duplicated each cake sorghum grain are the pericarp, endosperm, and germ.
formulation. Specifically, endosperm tissue is formed by the aleurone
layer, peripheral, corneous, and floury areas. Protein bodies
Sensory analysis are found in the floury endosperm, but in much smaller
amounts than in the pericarp or the corneous and peripheral
The evaluation of cakes was conducted by a focus group endosperm areas (Rooney and Murty 1981).
(Galvez and Resurreción 1992) conformed of five experts The total polyphenols content showed a wide variation
aged between 24 and 60 years. The evaluated characteris- (Table 1). Similar values were reported by Rao et al.
tics of cakes were appearance, texture, flavor, and sensory (2018), who showed that brown sorghum had significantly
differences between samples. For determining external higher values than white sorghum flour. PBS-80 presented
appearance whole cakes were shown to experts. After that significantly lower values of total polyphenols than not
slices of two cm from each cake were used to analyze the sieved brown sorghum flour (PBS and PBS-HI), which
remaining characteristics. The sensory session was were related to a decrease in the bran of final flour (Awika

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Table 1 Flour characterization parameters

Sample Protein(%) Lipids(%) Ash(%) TC(%) TPF mg/100g WBC(%) DS(%) D[4,3] (lm)

WWS 11.94 ± 0.30b 4.57 ± 0.01c 1.45 ± 0.02b 74.1 57.9 ± 4.9b 2.51 ± 0.03a 8.90 ± 0.21a 524.5 ± 4.6c
b ab a a a b
PWS 11.74 ± 0.21 3.32 ± 0.13 0.64 ± 0.02 76.9 27.3 ± 0.8 2.51 ± 0.04 10.21 ± 0.29 591.5 ± 12.1d
b a a a b c
PWS-HI 10.93 ± 0.31 3.08 ± 0.08 0.63 ± 0.01 78.0 31.3 ± 0.5 2.97 ± 0.08 28.95 ± 0.01 79.2 ± 3.6b
PWS-80 8.46 ± 0.21a 3.54 ± 0.13b 0.64 ± 0.01a 80.4 27.9 ± 1.4a 3.17 ± 0.08b 31.20 ± 0.12d 32.2 ± 1.7a
b a a c a a
PBS 10.80 ± 0.56 3.20 ± 0.15 0.67 ± 0.01 77.5 211.1 ± 0.2 2.61 ± 0.03 7.87 ± 0.01 512.5 ± 16.5c
b ab a b b b
PBS-HI 10.57 ± 0.26 3.69 ± 0.14 0.68 ± 0.01 77.7 138.8 ± 1.6 2.85 ± 0.03 19.43 ± 0.00 75.4 ± 0.7b
a b a a b b
PBS-80 8.78 ± 0.06 3.96 ± 0.01 0.66 ± 0.01 79.7 94.4 ± 5.6 2.93 ± 0.02 19.76 ± 0.82 27.4 ± 0.0a
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters between white sorghum flour and between browns sorghum flour
respectively in the same column mean significantly different (p \ 0.05)
WWS whole white sorghum flour (impact milled), PWS pearled white sorghum flour (impact milled), PBS pearled brown sorghum flour (impact
milled), HI high-speed milled samples, 80: 80 lm sieved samples, TC total carbohydrates, TPF total polyphenols (mg of tannic acid in 100 g of
flour), WBC water-binding capacity, DS damaged starch, D[4,3] volume mean diameter

2004). Pearled white sorghum flour (PWS, PWS-HI, and 21 lm and a small around 200 lm. The PSD patterns of
PWS-80) did not exhibit significant differences among PWS-80 and PBS-80 exhibited a large peak around 21 lm
them on total polyphenols contents. However, they showed and a shoulder around 70 lm, in agreement with the sieve
lower TPF than the whole white sorghum sample (WWS). size used (80 lm).
White and brown flour samples (PWS-HI, PBS-HI) The size reduction methods of the impact mill and the
increased about 2.8 and 2.5 times the damaged starch high-speed mill are somewhat different. In the impact mill,
content after the re-milling process. The high-speed milled comminution takes place in a cross beater through impact,
and also the sieved samples had significantly higher water- friction, and shearing forces. The grinding is comminuted
binding capacity (WBC), related to the significantly lower between the cross beater and the teeth of the grinding
size particle (Kim and Shin 2014) and higher damaged insert. The selected bottom sieve determines the final
starch content (Dayakar Rao 2016; Trappey 2015). fineness. Usually, during the severe random impact, the
surfaces of the particles lose their smoothness and shape
Particle size distribution uniformity (Dey et al. 2013). In contrast, particles milled
with the high-speed mill are forced against an abrasive ring
The mean volume diameter (D[4,3]) and D90 gradually by a high-speed rotating impeller and then pass through a
decreased as the grains were milled, re-milled, and sieved fine-mesh screen (Lazaridou et al. 2018).
to obtain flours (Table 1 and 1S). Similarly, Al-Rabadi et.
al, (2012) reported a wide distribution of particle size of Pasting properties of flour
sorghum flours obtained by hammer-mill (impact).
As most of the samples had a bimodal distribution The pasting profile in water was affected by the type of
(WWS, PWS, PWS-HI, PBS, and PBS-HI) the particle size sorghum and the processes to obtain the flour samples
distribution (PSD) graphics are showed and discussed (Fig. 1). The pasting characteristics of sorghum flours are
(Fig.1S). shown in table S2.
The PSD pattern of WWS (impact milled samples) In general, pearled samples showed a higher pasting
exhibited a large peak at about 680 lm, which suggested viscosity than whole flour through the complete heating
cell particles containing protein matrix holding starch and cooling cycle, becoming more evident in high-speed
granules and bran fractions; and a small peak of about milled flour samples (that is, samples with reduced particle
26 lm, indicating a starch granule fraction (Benmoussa size).
et al. 2006). Pearled and impact milled samples (PWS) had The results showed that the pasting temperature (PT)
similar PSD patterns than WWS but showed a slightly decreased as the particle size was reduced. High-speed
higher proportion of smaller particles than WWS. This was milled flour samples (PWS-HI and PBS-HI) and 80-lm
attributed to a higher amount of bran that has a tougher sieved flour samples (PWS-80 and PBS-80) exhibited the
texture, resulting in less efficient milling. lowest values.
The PSD patterns of high-speed milled flour samples Peak and final viscosity increased as the mean particle
(PWS-HI and PBS-HI) exhibited a large peak around size was reduced (p \ 0.05). High-speed milled flour and

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Fig. 1 Pasting properties of

white (a) and brown sorghum
flour (b) suspended in distilled
water WWS: whole white
sorghum flour (impact milled),
PWS: pearled white sorghum
flour (impact milled), PBS:
pearled brown sorghum flour
(impact milled), HI: high-speed
milled samples, 80: 80 lm
sieved samples

80-lm sieved flour samples showed higher values com- Although protein can stabilize starch paste and increase the
pared to PWS and PBS (Table 1S). overall pasting viscosity, the protein matrix can restrict the
The starch breakdown process (BD) was noticeable in swelling of starch granules during heating (Zhou et al.
high-speed milled and 80 lm sieved flour samples, while 2003). In our study, the particle size reduction seemed to
this parameter was low in pearled and impact milled weaken the effects of protein and cell-wall structures on
samples (PWS and PBS). Set back values (SB) increased flour pasting properties. Several authors noted that particle
progressively as particle size decreased (Table S2). size greatly influenced the pasting characteristics of flour
The results found in this study showed that the greater (Al-Rabadi 2012; Dayakar Rao 2016; Hasjim 2013). It
the particle size, the more delayed the beginning of the should also be noted that the larger the particle size, the
gelatinization peak and the lower the viscosity through the greater the physical barrier for heat and mass transfer to
RVA process (Fig. 1 and Table S2), indicating that the gelatinize the starch granules in the inner part of the flour
particle size reduction allowed the starch granules to swell particles. Changes in BD and SB values are related to high
faster and to a greater extent during heating. Higher pasting granule integrity and less amylose leach out, which con-
viscosity in pearled samples is related to the higher total firmed the stabilization of the granule.
carbohydrates content, mainly starch. In agreement with Sugar is the third major ingredient after egg and sor-
these results, PV showed a significant negative correlation ghum flour. Its presence limits the availability of water to
with protein content (r = -0.84, p \ 0.001) and a signifi- hydrate other particles since it acts as a polymer anti-
cant positive relation with carbohydrate content (r = 0.81, plasticizer (compared to water alone) when it is in a high
p \ 0.001). concentration. For this reason, the use of a sucrose solution
Both the delay of the beginning of the gelatinization as solvent on RVA tests allows a better approximation of
peak and the low viscosity during heating with larger the real behavior of the system (Kweon et al. 2009).
particle size could be attributed to the greater amount of The pasting profiles in pre-dissolved 50% w/w sugar
native protein and cell-wall structure, which stabilize the solutions were dramatically affected by the type of sor-
starch paste, delaying and preventing the swelling and the ghum and the processes to obtain the flour samples. These
rupture of the swollen starch granule (Hasjim et al. 2013). profiles showed a delay of the starch pasting compared

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with those in water (Fig. 2), due to the anti-plasticizing process and mean particle size. One possible partial
action of the sugar solution compared to the plasticizing explanation can be the lower damaged starch content of
action of water alone (Slade and Levine 1994). brown sorghum samples after a similar milling process
The profiles for flour slurries in 50% sucrose showed a (Table 1). According to Barrera et al. (2013), who studied
continuous increment of viscosity during heating and the effect of damaged starch on rheological properties of
holding time at maximum temperature. The starch break- wheat starch suspensions, damages starch granules do not
down and gelation process were negligible. During the BD fully contribute to viscosity increment, so the increment of
process of starch–water dispersions, the integrity of gela- damaged starch content produced gradual reductions in
tinized granules is disrupted, and the amylose molecules peak viscosity. However, further research is needed to
partially leach out. However, during the heating and thoroughly explain their differing behavior.
shearing processes of starch in 50% sucrose solution, no
evidence of granule rupture was observed by RVA mea- Batter and cakes properties
surements, and probably, no, or a reduced amount of
amylose was leached out. Kweon et al. (2009) found Microscope analyses of batters (Fig. 3) showed that the air
similar results studying wheat flour behavior and they distribution was strongly affected by the flour type used.
suggested that no BD is noticeable because of the delay of The images showed the largest bubbles in the first plane
viscosity development and the insufficient time for the and the smaller, in the second one. The qualitative analysis
subsequent disruption process, before cooling and setback. of the images shows that as flour particle size decreased,
Pasting viscosity of starch in 50% sucrose gradually bubble size also decreased. PWS-HI and PWS-80 exhibited
increased as the mean particle size was reduced (p \ 0.05) small and homogeneous air bubbles distribution, being
(Tables 1 and 2S). The effect of cell-wall structure on flour more evident in the latter. These samples also showed a
pasting properties was more evident in 50% sucrose solu- greater number of bubbles compared with WWS and PWS.
tion than in water. The same trends were observed in brown sorghum flour
Brown sorghum flour showed considerably higher vis- batters. de la Hera et al. (2013) also found that a smaller
cosities than white sorghum flour with a similar milling and more homogeneous distribution of bubbles in the batter

Fig. 2 Pasting properties of

white (a) and brown
(b) sorghum flour suspended in
a solution of sucrose at 50%.
WWS whole white sorghum
flour, PWS pearled white
sorghum flour (impact milled),
PBS: pearled brown sorghum
flour (impact milled), HI high-
speed milled samples, 80:
80 lm sieved samples. The
inset enlargement shows WWS
and PWS pasting profiles

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Fig. 3 Batter microphotographs

of sponge cakes elaborated with
white and brown sorghum flour
WWS (a); PWS (b); PWS-HI
(c); PWS-80 (d); PBS (e); PBS-
HI (f); PBS-80 (g). WWS whole
white sorghum flour, PWS
pearled white sorghum flour
(impact milled), PBS pearled
brown sorghum flour (impact
milled), HI high-speed milled
samples, 80: 80 lm sieved
samples

as they used rice flour of smaller particle sizes for sponge bubble retention during mixing. Liquid foams, as batters,
cakes making. are complex systems containing a great number of gas–
Table 2 shows the characteristics of batter and cakes. liquid-solid interfaces and are thermodynamically unsta-
Batter density increased progressively as particle size ble systems due to their high gas–liquid interfacial area.
decreased. The smaller the flour particle size, the higher the The main destabilization mechanisms are drainage
batter density and the lower the air incorporation in the (creaming), coalescence (film rupture), disproportionation,
batter. Dhen et al. (2016) described a similar effect on and sedimentation (Hunter et al. 2008). Gas cells in the
batter density, which increased as soy flour with smaller batter are stabilized by the surface-active components,
particle size, was used to substitute wheat flour. which are naturally incorporated in the ingredients (egg
The mixing step combines all ingredients into a uniform and flour proteins and lipids) or are added as additives
batter and incorporates large numbers of gas cells, which is (emulsifiers) (Godefroidt 2019). Particles can be absorbed
important for batter leavening in the oven and cake volume on bubble surfaces during mixing and stabilize the foam.
and texture since these bubbles act as the nuclei for cake The foam stabilizing effect of particles is affected by the
expansion. Density is associated with air incorporation and particle hydrophobicity, electrical properties, size, and

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Table 2 Batter and cake parameters

Samples Batter density(g/ Batter SC specific volume(cm3/ Hardness (N) Cohesiveness Springines Chewiness
cm3) Viscosity(cP) g)

WWS 0.27 ± 0.04a 1246 ± 22a 2.46 ± 0.00a 11.2 ± 1.8 cd

0.57 ± 0.02bc 0.86 ± 0.01a 5.6 ± 1.1bc
a bc ab bc cd ab
PWS 0.28 ± 0.00 1610 ± 37 2.74 ± 0.24 9.4 ± 0.1 0.62 ± 0.01 0.89 ± 0.01 5.1 ± 0.1bc
b c a d b bc
PWS- 0.34 ± 0.00 1939 ± 24 2.49 ± 0.03 14.6 ± 1.6 0.55 ± 0.01 0.91 ± 0.00 7.3 ± 0.9c
HI
PWS-80 0.47 ± 0.01c 2634 ± 48d 3.21 ± 0.01c 7.0 ± 0.3ab 0.55 ± 0.01b 0.91 ± 0.00bc 3.5 ± 0.1ab
a b bc abc d ab
PBS 0.27 ± 0.01 1589 ± 182 3.06 ± 0.10 7.9 ± 1.1 0.64 ± 0.01 0.87 ± 0.02 4.3 ± 0.6ab
b bc bc bc a c
PBS-HI 0.36 ± 0.00 1780 ± 174 3.06 ± 0.08 9.3 ± 0.8 0.50 ± 0.06 0.93 ± 0.01 4.3 ± 0.1ab
c e d a b c
PBS-80 0.46 ± 0.00 3909 ± 60 3.71 ± 0.10 5.3 ± 0.3 0.57 ± 0.00 0.94 ± 0.00 2.9 ± 0.0ab
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters in the same column mean significantly different (p \ 0.05)
SC sponge cake, WWS whole white sorghum flour (impact milled), PWS pearled white sorghum flour (impact milled), PBS pearled brown
sorghum flour (impact milled), HI high-speed milled samples, 80: 80 lm sieved samples

concentration. The main stabilization mechanisms are PWS-80 and PBS-80 (the finest flour samples) reached
adsorption of particles at the air–water interface, stratifi- the highest cake volumes. These results agree with those
cation of non-adsorbing particles, and changes in capillary reported by de la Hera et al (2013), which showed that
pressure caused by the presence of small adsorbed particles higher cake volumes were reached by using smaller parti-
(Zhang et al. 2008). cle sizes of rice flour. Similarly, Choi and Baik (2013) and
Two mains effects can be related to a smaller and more Moiraghi et al (2013) reported that a smaller particle size
homogeneous distribution of bubbles in batters with finer of wheat flour produced larger cake volumes.
flour particles. First, better distribution and dispersion of PWS-80 and PBS-80 also had the smallest bubble size
flour proteins and lipids are expectable which can improve and the most homogenous bubble distribution in the bat-
their surface-active properties. Second, the small particle ters, the highest batter viscosities, and the lowest temper-
size may facilitate the absorption of hydrated flour particles ature of the beginning of the gelatinization, and the highest
onto the surface of the bubble. viscosity during heating, especially in the sucrose solution-
Batter viscosity also increased progressively as particle flour system evaluated by RVA, where PV and FV
size decreased. PBS-80 and PWS-80 exhibited the highest exhibited a remarkable increase (Fig. 2). Sponge cake
viscosity values and also the highest carbohydrate (starch) volumes showed positive and significant correlations with
and damaged starch contents, which produced the highest batter viscosity (r = 0.81, p \ 0.001) and density (r = 0.71,
values of WBC (Table 1) because of their thickener role in p \ 0.001).
the batter. The stronger interaction between these flour The texture properties of cakes are exhibited in Table 2.
components and water molecules decreased the water The hardness of sponge cakes produced with coarser par-
available in the aqueous phase, decreasing their lubricant ticle size flour had significantly higher values than finer
capacity and, in consequence, raising the viscosity of the fractions. As expected, PWS-80 and PBS-80 were the
system. Person’s correlation confirmed these results as DS softest and the most chewable samples. In general, sponge
exhibited a strong positive correlation with WBC (r: 0.93, cakes made with white and brown sorghum flour of the
p \ 0.001). smallest particle size presented the lowest cohesiveness
Sponge cake volumes were strongly affected by the and higher springiness values, which was related to larger
particle size of flour, and a direct relation was observed cake volumes. The correlation test was also in agreement
between the size and distribution of bubbles in batters. The with these findings, as cakes volumes presented a signifi-
specific volumes varied between 2.46 and 3.71 cm3/g cant negative correlation with hardness and (r =-0.81,
(Table 2). p \ 0.001) chewiness (r =-0.79, p \ 0.001), and a sig-
Figure 4 shows that cakes made with mean particle size nificant positive correlation with springiness (r = 0.55,
flour larger than * 210 lm (90% of the particle popula- p \ 0.05).
tion below 211.5 lm) (Table.1S) had a collapse in the The increment of temperature during the early baking
central area (WWS, PWS, and PBS). These samples also phase led to a decrease of batter viscosity and a growing of
showed the presence of larger bubbles in the batters and the gas bubbles due to air expansion, carbon dioxide (CO2)
lowest batter viscosities and density values and the highest formation by the leavening agents (if it is present), steam
delay of the beginning of the gelatinization and the lowest production, and reduction of gas solubility in the aqueous
viscosity during heating. phase. As a consequence of these events, the volume

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Fig. 4 Photographs of sponge

cakes elaborated with white and
brown sorghum flour WWS (a);
PWS (b); PWS-HI (c); PWS-80
(d); PBS (e); PBS-HI (f); PBS-
80 (g). WWS whole white
sorghum flour, PWS pearled
white sorghum flour (impact
milled), PBS pearled brown
sorghum flour (impact milled),
HI high-speed milled samples,
80: 80 lm sieved samples

increases. In the late-baking phase, starch swelling, and cake structure (no collapse in the central area), volume, and
denaturation, and coagulation of proteins produce the set- texture.
ting of the structure of the sponge cake (Godefroidt 2019; Furthermore, the delay at the beginning of the gela-
Wilderjans 2013). tinization peak and the low viscosity during heating (as was
The events of the early baking phase may lead to the rise found in the RVA analyses) with larger particle size sug-
of air bubbles in the batter and the loss of gas. The rising of gested that the increase of viscosity caused by starch
the gas cells to the surface of the foam is caused by a gelatinization occurred later in coarser fractions and the
difference in density between the liquid and the air phase formed system was not able to support its weight, which
and by the presence of large gas cells. If too-low viscosity led to a formation of a depression in the central area of the
is reached, bubbles rise and phase separation can be pro- baked cake.
duced which led to the formation of the starch granule
deposits. Batter viscosity should remain high enough dur- Sensory analysis
ing baking to minimize gas cell loss (Godefroidt 2019;
Wilderjans 2013). The participants of the focus group perceived a sweet and
The results showed in this study, suggested that small pleasant smell in all samples and differences in color
and homogeneous bubbles and high batter viscosity pre- between them. The cakes made with brown sorghum (BS)
vented or reduced the raising of the bubbles and avoid their flours presented a darker crumb than those made with white
escape to the surface during baking, improving the sponge sorghum flours (WS), which were likely to brown-yellow
colors. The panel also noticed that sponge cakes made with

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J Food Sci Technol (April 2022) 59(4):1407–1418 1417

smaller particle size flours had lighter crusts and crumbs Funding Research was supported by the Consejo Nacional de
than products obtained with higher particle size flours, Ciencia y Técnica (CONICET), Agencia Nacional de Promoción
Cientı́fica y Tecnológica, the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, the
particularly PBS-80 and PWS-80 samples. This was related Universidad Nacional de La Pampa (Argentina), and Universidad de
to the sieving of samples which reduced the bran fraction in Valladolid (Spain).
flour, especially in brown sorghums (Awika et al. 2005).
In the mouth, WWS, PWS and PBS presented a sandy Availability of data and material Not applicable.
(gritty) texture probably related to an incomplete integra-
Code availability Not applicable.
tion of larger particles during batter (Dhen et al. 2016).
In general, cakes made with smaller particle size flours Declarations
were described as having a more fluffy and softer texture.
PWS-HI was identified as the densest and driest cake, Conflicts of interest The authors declare that no conflict of interest
exists.
among white samples. PBS-80 and PWS-80 were the
softest cakes, which was in agreement with the texture Ethics approval This article does not contain any studies involving
evaluation tests. human participants or animals, performed by any of the authors.
All samples were described as extremely sweet being
PBS-80 and PWS-80 marked as the least sweet cakes. An Consent for publication Appropriate statements regarding publish-
ing an individual’s.
astringency sensation was described for all BS cakes being data or image.
this minimum for PWS-80.

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article Improvement of the quality of gluten-free sponge cake

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