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 Cognitive Models
in
Language and Thought

W
DE

G
Cognitive Linguistics Research
24

Editors
Rene Dirven
Ronald W. Langacker
John R. Taylor

Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
 Cognitive Models
in Language and Thought
Ideology, Metaphors and Meanings

Edited by
Rene Dirven
Roslyn Frank
Martin Pütz

Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York 2003
 Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague)
is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin

® Printed on acid-free paper

which falls within
the guidelines of the ANSI
to ensure permanence and durability.

ISBN 3 11 017792 7

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek

Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>.

© Copyright 2003 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin
All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in Germany
Preface

This collection of papers is the result of the 29th International LAUD

Symposium entitled "The Language of Socio-Political Ideologies",
which was held at the University of Koblenz-Landau in Landau
(Germany) on March 27-29, 2002.
Thanks to the generous support by the DFG (German Research
Foundation), the University of Koblenz-Landau, the Ministry of
Education and Culture of the Rhineland-Palatinate, the Gillet Foun-
dation (Edenkoben) and the Friends and Supporters of the University
of Koblenz-Landau (Campus Landau), many internationally well-
known scholars could participate in the symposium. Thanks are also
due to the organizing LAUD team of the conference, in particular
Heike Ramsauer, Angelika Daniel and Holly Hirzel for their enthusi-
asm and kind assistance.
Beyond these, a sincere thanks goes out to the authors in this vol-
ume, who have responded with alacrity and professionalism to all the
requests that have been made of them. We are also indebted to two of
the editors of the book series Cognitive Linguistics Research: Ronald
W. Langacker and John R. Taylor, whose support was crucial to the
emergence of the present volume.
Our deep gratitude must also go to those who made this publica-
tion possible: to all colleagues who kindly agreed to act as referees
and who reviewed the papers, offering valuable advice both to the
contributors and to the editors; furthermore, to Anke Beck and Birgit
Sievert (Mouton de Gruyter), for their kind assistance and coopera-
tion with this venture; and to Jörg Behrndt (Duisburg), whose exper-
tise and infinite patience gave the volume its final computerized
shape.

Rene Dirven (University of Duisburg)

Roslyn Frank (University of Iowa)
Martin Pütz (University of Koblenz-Landau)
Contents

Preface ν

Introduction: Categories, cognitive models and ideologies 1

Rene Dirven, Roslyn M. Frank and Martin Pütz

Section 1: Cognitive models of linguistic variation

Cultural models of linguistic standardization 25

Dirk Geeraerts

How to do things with allophones:

Linguistic stereotypes as cognitive reference points
in social cognition 69
Gitte Kristiansen

Section 2: Cognitive models of cultural/social identities

Shifting identities in Basque and Western

cultural models of Self and Being 123
Roslyn M. Frank

Language and ideology in Nigerian cartoons 159

Oyinkan Medubi

Three mandates for anti-minority policy

expressed in U.S. public discourse metaphors 199
Otto Santa Ana

Has the consciousness of modern industrial societies

rendered "housewife" no longer a value-free cultural model? 229
Lewis Sego
viii Contents

Section 3: Cognitive models as covert ideologies

Conceptual metaphor as ideological stylistic means:

An exemplary analysis 247
Hans-Georg Wolf and Frank Polzenhagen

Metaphor and ideology in the press coverage

of telecom corporate consolidations 277
Michael White and Honesto Herrera

Section 4: Cognitive models in covert social debates

Ideological functions of metaphor: The conceptual

metaphors of health and illness in public discourse 327
Andreas Musolff

Genetic roulette: On the cognitive rhetoric of biorisk 353

Craig A. Hamilton

Deciphering the human genome: The semantic and

ideological foundations of genetic and genomic discourse 395
Brigitte Neriich and Robert Dingwall

List of contributors 429

Index 435
Introduction:
Categories, cognitive models and ideologies

Rene Dirven, Roslyn M. Frank and Martin Pütz

This volume results from the 29th International LAUD Symposium,

held on March 27-29, 2002 at the University of Koblenz-Landau in
Landau, Germany. The conference theme "The Language of Socio-
political Ideologies" concentrated on various aspects of the theory
and application of cognitive linguistics and other linguistic models,
and more particularly on the interplay between language and ideol-
ogy seen from various linguistic sub-disciplines. While the present
volume has a clear focus on cognitive linguistics in general and cog-
nitive models and metaphor in particular, the other conference vol-
ume (eds. Pütz, Neff-van Aertselaer & van Dijk forthcoming) like-
wise deals with language and ideology, but takes a different perspec-
tive, i.e. critical linguistics in discourse and ecolinguistic studies.
In this introduction the focus is on the societal orientation of cog-
nitive linguistics, on the many descriptive tools developed in cogni-
tive linguistics, and on the way the contributors have explored and
exploited these tools in their analyses of ideologies.

1. The interplay between cognitive linguistics and ideology

On the one hand, this collective volume is an attempt to investigate

empirically what cognitive linguistics has to offer as research tools
for the definition, detection, analysis and interpretation of language-
based societal systems such as ideology. Both in its neutral and in its
"loaded" senses, ideology is a system of beliefs and values based on
a set of cognitive models, i.e. mental representations - partly linguis-
tic, partly non-linguistic - of recurrent phenomena and their inter-
2 Rene Dirven, Roslyn M. Frank and Martin Pütz

pretations in culture and society. As such, the volume is an invitation

to all scholars iiwieighboring fields, such as functionalism, pragmat-
ics and critical linguistics or critical discourse analysis, to take cogni-
zance of the instrumental repertoire developed within cognitive lin-
guistics and its ability to address symbolization of overt and covert
conceptualizations of belief and value systems and their expression in
language.
On the other hand, this volume is also an invitation to cognitive
linguists, and to all linguists of whatever orientation, to put their
analytical tools to work, not only on the system-internal areas of con-
ceptualization and linguistic structure, but also on the crucial areas of
socio-political thought, organization and communication. To be more
concrete, this volume acts as an incentive to further develop and ex-
pand cognitive linguistics in the direction of a cognitive sociolin-
guistics, i.e towards investigations encompassing cognitive views of
language politics and language attitudes, cognitive discourse analy-
sis, cognitive stylistics and cognitive rhetoric. Functioning together
in one broad theoretical framework, these various sub-disciplines will
be far better equipped to develop large-scale ideology research pro-
grams. In this way, cognitive linguistics is heading for its own built-
in final destination, that of cognitive semiotics.
The ball is in both courts now. Scholars not yet familiar with the
tenets and analytical tools of cognitive linguistics are invited to find
out more about them. And cognitive linguistic scholars are invited to
look beyond the familiar so-called language-structure areas and to
come to grips with the societal belief and value systems that these
linguistic structures serve, maintain and perpetuate. This may be, in a
nutshell, the essence of ideology research.
Linguistics, as an academic subject of critical reflection on the
many aspects of linguistic structuring and functioning, has, just like
most academic disciplines, witnessed the total split between the vari-
ous paradigms which have developed because of the changing spirit
of the times. In turn, due to the neglect or even total exclusion of
meaning as a central concern in structuralist thought, and due to its
minimalist role in the successive generative approaches, it was only a
matter of time before vigorous new sub-disciplines such as pragmat-
 Introduction: Categories, cognitive models, and ideologies 3

ics and discourse analysis would arise. Similarly, due to the lack of
concern for the social symbolizing function of language, it was
equally natural that with time other vigorous sub-disciplines such as
sociolinguistics, ethnomethodology, conversational analysis, critical
linguistics, and critical discourse analysis would come into being.
This picture of a total split between all these sub-disciplines in the
global linguistic scene may look gloomy, but it is even more dis-
heartening to witness that most linguists seem to feel rather safe in
their isolated niches.
Yet, cognitive linguistics does not intend to become a new niche
for all those who want to safeguard the primacy of meaning. Because
cognitive linguistics is fully committed to meaning, it must approach
meaning in its deepest societal reality, that is, as negotiated meaning,
i.e. as symbolization by human conceptualizers who wish to create
and construe the meaning complexes they want to exchange with
partners in interaction. Grammar, viewed as the inventory of all pos-
sible conventionalized assemblies and constructions of meaning
complexes in a given language, is moreover usage-based. As such,
cognitive linguistics aims to integrate all the multi-faceted dimen-
sions of linguistic communication. It has an equal commitment to the
structuring of linguistic exchanges and to the communicative func-
tions that linguistic expressions are supposed to serve.
Cognitive linguistics thus claims to be the very first linguistic
model that is all-inclusive or all-embracing. That is, cognitive lin-
guistics is simultaneously both a fully developed grammatical model
and a fully user- and usage-oriented model covering the functional,
pragmatic, interactive and socio-cultural dimensions of language-in-
use. This theoretical stance is not really new for it has been implicit
in most of Ron Langacker's and George Lakoff s writings, and it has
come to explicit formulations, for example, in Langacker's essay
"Culture, cognition and grammar (Langacker 1994). What is new,
however, is that a number of cognitive linguists are beginning to ex-
plore the second route offered by this all-embracing commitment.
4 Rene Dirven, Roslyn M. Frank and Martin Pütz

2. Cognitive tools for ideology research

The research tools that the papers in the present volume explore and
exploit are not new, but rather they are the very tools inherent to the
cognitive approach. Problems of ideology are analyzed from two
basic vantage points: a non-metaphorical one (Geeraerts, Kristiansen,
Sego, Nerlich & Dingwall), or else a metaphorical vantage point
(most other papers), or a mixture of both (Hamilton). This gives am-
ple proof of the fact that cognitive linguistics has much more to con-
tribute to the study of ideology than its know-how on metaphor and
metaphorical thought. Indeed, its most basic and strongest research
tool is its insightful ability to lay bare the structuring of conceptions
and concepts. Therefore, it is only natural that this most basic tool is
central to the contributions that cognitive linguists can make to the
analysis of ideology. Cognitive linguistics is an approach to language
that, as Langacker (2000: 1) puts it, sees the semantic pole as insepa-
rably linked to the phonological pole in the symbolic structure that is
language. Though there is dispute about the exact differentiation
between meaning and conceptualization (see Levinson 1997), there is
no doubt that meanings are conventionalized conceptualizations (see
Bartsch 2002).
In fact, metaphoric thought should not in any way be seen as op-
posed to this basic conceptualization tool. Rather it should be under-
stood as a special although all-pervasive subtype of conceptualiza-
tion. What the metaphorically based papers show is that because of
their very nature, metaphors and metonymies offer a surplus in that
they often have a great deal of ideological impact. But it is also clear
from the content of the various papers in this volume that this ideo-
logical potential can equally well be pinpointed by non-metaphorical,
that is, non-imaginative, approaches.

2.1. Common, non-imaginative conceptualization

From a cognitive perspective, conceptualization operates on various

units of conceptual structures, such as categories, cognitive models,
 Introduction: Categories, cognitive models, and ideologies 5

prototypes and stereotypes, frames, domains, and mental spaces.

Langacker (1987: 118ff.) sees a category as a gestalt-like structure,
consisting of a profile and a base; the profile is the selected chunk of
perception, or more generally, of experience, and the base is the
wider context or background against which the profile is projected.
Thus a tongue, as the movable and flexible organ in the mouth, has
'the mouth' as its base; the mouth itself is profiled against the face,
the face against the head, the head against the body, etc. Category
disputes can arise whenever an important component of a category is
at stake, e.g. when Hamilton (this volume) reveals the now fuzzy
boundaries between animal and human genomes in the special case
of the implanting of genetically manipulated organisms in food, or, in
the foreseeable future, the implanting of animal parts in humans.
Just like Langacker, Lakoff (1987: xv) also considers the gestalt
character of any category as essential. But, as a philosophically-
oriented linguist, he also connects this to parameters of the origin and
goal of categories, or more generally, of thought. Categories are ei-
ther grounded in bodily experience through perception or body
movement (this is their "embodied" aspect or else they result from
"imaginative" processes (metaphor/metonymy, or other mental im-
agery). Thus in English, tongue as a physical/physiological category -
or its equivalents in Latin and French, i.e. lingua / langue - is me-
tonymically extended to denote non-bodily experienced entities such
as "speech" and "language." From a goal-oriented viewpoint, catego-
ries and thought have "ecological" structure, i.e. they depend for their
efficiency on the overall structure of the conceptual system. Lakoff
uses the term cognitive model for any category, since categories ex-
hibit most of these characteristics. As may be clear from the struc-
turing of the four parts of the present book, the notion cognitive
model is taken here in a somewhat more specific sense, i.e. as de-
noting societal categories. Nonetheless, in essence this view is fully
compatible with Lakoff s description of the term, the only difference
being that here in our case it is reserved for a more abstract type of
categories encountered in culture and society, such as linguistic
variation, social or cultural identity, ideology as a system, and many
more.
6 Rene Dirven, Roslyti M. Frank and Martin Pütz

As Eleanor Rosch (1978) revealed, categories (or cognitive mod-

els) have internal structure, i.e., all members of a category do not
have the same status within the category: some occupy a more central
place while others are relegated to a less central or even a peripheral
one. As Taylor (1995: 226) and Winters (1998: 231) convincingly
show, this also holds for categories used to describe language, i.e.
linguistic categories such as phonemes. Thus the linguistic category
of the English consonant Iii has as its members: [th] (aspirated t as in
top), [t] (unaspirated t as in fat), [?t] (glottal stop plus t, as in catcall),
lateral [r] (flap in intervocalic position as in city [siri], or reduced to
zero [0] as in [sii]. The more central allophones [th] and [t] are the
prototype, whereas the others are less central or even peripheral. A
peripheral allophone may come to be used as a social marker, e.g. the
widespread use of the glottal stop in Cockney English. Then, as
Kristiansen shows in her contribution, a small set of such markers
may constitute a stereotype, a simplified, although not necessarily
negative picture of a social group, whose main function is to serve as
a reference point for the given social or regional group.
In between a (simple) "category" and the very wide notion of
"domain", we make use of categories of intermediate complexity
which we can, after Fillmore (1975), Fillmore, & Atkins (1992) or
Minsky (1975), though in somewhat different senses, call "frames".
According to Kristiansen (this volume), frame is a category com-
posed of a number of other categories which form an internally
structured whole. Simple examples are chair, window, car; more
complex ones are commercial transaction scene, lawsuit, social
identity. As a frame, the category "social identity" contains a number
of slots such as religious values, (other) ideological values, economic
factors, and appearance (sex, skin color, hair, etc.). Part of the ap-
pearance is also the use of given allophones, so that, as Kristiansen
puts it, a very peripheral element of a phoneme in a very peripheral
personality trait of social identity can metonymically come to stand
for the whole of a speaker's social and/or regional identity.
The various slots of a frame (or parameters, or any other term
suggesting a set of different elements) invoke different domains, i.e.
various dimensions against which a (complex) category is profiled,
 Introduction: Categories, cognitive models, and ideologies 7

such as the abstract domains of religion or other belief and value

systems, the economic domain, the physical domains of sex, skin and
hair color, pronunciation, etc. In contrast to these various usage-
based types of categories, the actual use of categories in discourse
can only be accounted for by means of a "bridge" between them.
This takes the form of what Fauconnier (1985) calls "mental spaces".
Mental spaces are small packages of knowledge and information set
up during discourse which enable the interactants to keep a record of
the entities (or categories) actually called up in discourse or implied
in other categories, especially in frames. Even if the elements of a
frame like car are not all activated by referring to this category, (e g.
we do not necessarily think of the car's petrol tank when we refer to a
car), no problems arise when we ask at a petrol station Can you fill
her up?, since the petrol tank is actually accessible as part of the
overall car frame. This brief overview of the battery of cognitive
tools may have shown sufficiently that cognitive linguistics can make
serious attempts at exploring the links between language and thought.

2.2. Imaginative conceptualization

In addition to these non-imaginative ways of conceptualizing, cogni-

tive linguistics has revealed the conceptual potential of imaginative
routes of conceptualization, especially by means of metaphor and
metonymy. The volume's metaphor-based papers all reveal that it is
not so much a single metaphor that is apt to carry ideological asso-
ciations, but rather the various metaphorical instantiations of a com-
mon underlying conceptual metaphor. This is especially made clear
in the papers by Frank, Santa Ana, Wolf & Polzenhagen, and White
& Herrera, who all in different ways exploit and explore the concept
of conceptual metaphor. For example, Wolf & Polzenhagen illustrate
the potential of conceptual metaphor for the domain of trade negotia-
tions. These can be conceptualized by means of a variety of concep-
tual metaphors. In turn, each conceptual metaphor acts to impose its
particular perspective, i.e., the metaphorical instantiations inherent in
the conceptual metaphor chosen. Thus the conceptual metaphor
8 Rene Dirven, Roslyn M. Frank and Martin Pütz

TRADE NEGOTIATIONS ARE BATTLES (as a sub-category of ARGUMENT IS

WAR) imposes a conflict perspective, whereas ARGUMENT IS SPORT(S),
while still keeping the competitive winner-loser antonymy, fore-
grounds a game-like scenario (not taking things too seriously), e.g.
allowing for cheating, and even allowing for a draw in some favorite
sports such as soccer (see Cubo de Severino et al. 2001). Still there
are other conceptual metaphors for TRADE NEGOTIATIONS such as
MARKETS ARE CONTAINERS and TRADE is A JOURNEY. But it is not only
the conceptual metaphor as such that determines the ideological per-
spective, but also, and equally decisively, the various linguistic ex-
pressions instantiating the underlying conceptual metaphor. Here
stylistic factors are of fundamental importance. Thus in the trade war
between Japan and America, the American phrasing of the TRADE IS
WAR image is rendered in terms of demanding, which reflects a non-
hostile stance on the part of one party, namely, America, and hence
serves to promote a positive auto-stereotype; in contrast to this, the
xeno-stereotype, associated with the Japanese posture is portrayed by
aggressive verbs as in "Hashimoto accuses the U.S. of bullying Japan
by threatening...". The conceptual frames of "self-presentation" and
"other-representation" (see Morgan 1997, Sandikcioglu 2001) are
caught up in the antonymy us vs. THEM, which obviously is part and
parcel of ideological categorization.
A highly specific and usually visual representation of a conceptual
metaphor is what Hawkins (2001) has called iconographic refer-
ence. This term can be understood as the metaphorical pendant of a
stereotype in that it is a representation based on simplistic images of
the targeted people, groups or ideas, and associated with familiar
values, either positive or negative ones. All these conceptualizations
tend to operate at a subconscious or unconscious level of thought.
This lack of consciousness is directly linked to the rather convention-
alized character of conceptual metaphor and iconographic reference.
As is the case with all conventionalized categories, so too for meta-
phorical categories does the rule hold true: the more deeply catego-
ries and metaphors get entrenched in people's consciousness, the less
conscious people become of their existence. Whereas conceptual
metaphor and iconographic reference tend to operate automatically
 Introduction: Categories, cognitive models, and ideologies 9

and hence remain below the level of conscious awareness, concep-

tual blending or conceptual integration is rather a dynamic process,
as the two nominalizations already suggest. Mental space theory not
only solves a number of referential problem areas previously thought
to be insoluble, it also represents a congenial contribution to the cog-
nitive theory of metaphor. And again as with the natural link between
categorization and metaphorization, there is a natural link between
the two uses of conceptual blending in referential blends and in
metaphorical blends. In comparison with the two-domain theory of
metaphor, the blending theory of metaphor is revolutionary, firstly
because it breaks through a fairly static two-domain view with a
source domain being mapped onto a target domain, and secondly
because it develops a multi-space view. This allows elements from
various input spaces associated with the source domain and the target
domain to be joined together as a generic space, and to be mapped
into a blended space, or blend. This volume clearly underscores the
success of the "conceptual blend" approach for it is exploited or, at
least implicitly invoked in many of its papers, i.e. in those by Kris-
tiansen, Medubi, Wolf & Polzenhagen, Musolff, Nerlich & Dingwall,
and Hamilton. The most typical representative is perhaps Medubi's
discussion of the lack of awareness of a national ideology or identity
in her country, Nigeria. In her approach, blending theory can account
both for non-metaphorical and metaphorical blends. A non-
metaphorical blend occurs in the coining of the term Military Presi-
dent, which blends the military dictatorship space with the demo-
cratically elected head of state space, and thus creates the illusion that
there is still a democratic component in such a military type of presi-
dent. In a more subtle way, the iconographic reference represented by
the conceptual metaphor OUR LITTLE SON is used as a conceptual me-
tonymy standing for the split into ethnic identities of Nigeria's ethni-
cally thinking and acting groups. Since the source OUR LITTLE SON as
an iconographic reference stands for the target FAMILY AS AUTHORITY,
the implicit inference is that the soN-politician's actions must re-
spond to the interests and expectations of his FAMILY subjects, i.e. the
members of his ethnic group.
10 Rene Dirven, Roslyn Μ. Frank and Martin Pütz

In summary, in this section we have looked at the various analyti-

cal instruments the papers use, illustrate or develop. In the next sec-
tion, we will examine the contribution that each paper makes indi-
vidually in terms of its insights into various other aspects and areas
of socio-political ideology.

3. Single cognitive inroads to ideology research

In the present volume, cognitive models and the ideologies of which

they are constitutive, are approached along two different axes: a the-
matic axis (sections 1 and 2) and a methodological axis (sections 3
and 4). The papers selected thematically focus on cognitive models
of linguistic variation and on cognitive models of cultural and/or so-
cial identities. On the other hand, the papers selected methodologi-
cally focus on the way cognitive models in ideologies are communi-
cated, which can be accomplished either in a covert form or in overt
public debates. Therefore, we can state that along the thematic axis it
appears that human communities have built up cognitive models, not
only of social structures, but also of the instrument used to develop
social structures, i.e. language itself.

3.1. Cognitive models of linguistic variation

In his contribution "Cultural models of linguistic standardization",

Dirk Geeraerts starts out from the simple assumption that any lan-
guage, or a particular type of discourse, contains or expresses ideo-
logical elements. His paper, however, is focused on a more encom-
passing area of interest, namely the field of language variation and
linguistic standardization which likewise is inherent in the relation-
ship between language and ideology. According to Geeraerts, the
choice of a particular language variety as the standard is an ideology-
laden decision; as such, it can implicate concepts such as emancipa-
tion, democracy, participation in public life, etc. His discussion of the
standardization of one (or more) of the language varieties within a
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