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Contemporary Human
Behavior Theory
A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR SOCIAL WORK
This page intentionally left blank
 Third Edition

Contemporary Human
Behavior Theory
A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR SOCIAL WORK

Susan P. Robbins
University of Houston

Pranab Chatterjee
Case Western Reserve University, Emeritus

Edward R. Canda
University of Kansas

Allyn & Bacon

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Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations
have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Robbins, Susan P.
Contemporary human behavior theory : a critical perspective for social work / Susan P. Robbins, Pranab Chatterjee,
Edward R. Canda.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-03312-6 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-205-03312-1 (alk. paper)
1. Social service. 2. Human behavior. 3. Social ecology. I. Chatterjee, Pranab, 1936– II. Canda, Edward R.
III. Title.
HV40.R575 2012
361—dc22
2010053558

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 [DOH] 13 12 11

ISBN-10: 0-205-03312-1
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-03312-6
 There is nothing so practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin

There is no theory that is not beset with problems.

—Karl Popper

There is nothing as harmful as a bad theory.

—Bruce Thyer
 CHAPTER CO-AUTHORS
AND CONTRIBUTORS

Barbara Becker, MPH James McDonnell, PhD

late Associate Professor
Brené Brown, PhD University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Research Professor Beverly McPhail, PhD
University of Houston Director
Graduate College of Social Work University of Houston
Women’s Resource Center
Thomas M. Brown, PsyD
Psychologist Fred Richardson, PhD
Orem, Utah Professor Emeritus
University of Texas at Austin
David Lawson Burton, MSW, PhD Department of Educational Psychology
Associate Professor
Smith College Mende Snodgress, JD, LCSW
School for Social Work MHMRA of Harris County
Houston, TX
Graciela Couchonnal, PhD
Program Officer Kimberly Strom-Gottfried, PhD
Health Care Foundation of Greater Professor
Kansas City University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
School of Social Work
Cynthia Franklin,
PhD, LCSW, LMFT Joanne Yaffe, PhD
Professor Associate Professor
University of Texas at Austin University of Utah
School of Social Work College of Social Work

Fernando J. Galan, PhD,

LMSW-ACP
late
David Hussey, PhD
Clinical Director
Beech Brook of Cleveland

vi
 CONTENTS

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii

Chapter 1 The Nature of Theories 1

Organization of the Book and Rationale for Selection of Theories 2
Why Study Theories of Human Behavior? 4
Theories: What Are They? 6
The Social Construction of Theories 7
Ideology, Scientific Theory, and Social Work Practice 8
Determinism and Reductionism: A Problem of Social
Construction 13
Theories: Application to Practice 14
Critical Analysis of Theory: The Missing Dimension 16
An Afterthought: Paths to Human Knowledge 22
Summary 23
Chapter 2 Systems Theory 25
Historical Context 26
Key Concepts 28
Structural Functionalism 28
The Ecological Perspective 32
Dynamic Systems Theory 35
Deep Ecology 43
Ecofeminism 45
Contemporary Issues 46
Application to Social Work Practice 47
Critical Analysis 52
Consistency with Social Work Values 55
Philosophical Underpinnings 57
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 57
Summary 58
Chapter 3 Conflict Theories 59
Historical Context 60
Key Concepts 61
Class Conflict 62
Roads from Marx 65
vii
viii Contents

Contemporary Issues 73
Application to Social Work Practice 75
Critical Analysis 79
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 81
Philosophical Underpinnings 82
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 82
Summary 84
Chapter 4 Theories of Empowerment 85
Historical Context 86
Key Concepts 87
Stratification, Oppression, and Inequality: The Sociopolitical Context
of Empowerment Theories 87
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Questioning, and
Intersexed Empowerment Theories 90
Social Work Empowerment Theories 93
Contemporary Issues 96
Application to Social Work Practice 97
Critical Analysis 101
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 104
Philosophical Underpinnings 105
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 105
Summary 106
Chapter 5 Feminist Theory 107
Historical Context 108
Key Concepts 110
Feminist Theories 118
Contemporary Thought in Feminist Theory 119
Contemporary Issues 126
Application to Social Work Practice 126
Critical Analysis 129
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 131
Philosophical Underpinnings 131
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 132
Summary 133
Chapter 6 Theories of Assimilation, Acculturation, Bicultural Socialization,
and Ethnic Minority Identity 134
Historical Context 135
Key Concepts 138
Deficiency Theory 140
 Contents ix

The Dual Perspective 142

Bicultural Socialization 143
Ethnic, Racial/Cultural, and Minority Identity 145
A Multidimensional Transactional Model of Bicultural Identity 147
Transculturality 155
Cultural Competence 157
Contemporary Issues 159
Application to Social Work Practice 160
Critical Analysis 164
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 166
Philosophical Underpinnings 167
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 167
Summary 168
Chapter 7 Psychodynamic Theory 169
Historical Context 170
Key Concepts 170
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 171
The Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious 171
Roads from Freud 177
The Freudian Mainstream 178
The Freudian Left 187
Contemporary Issues 189
Application to Social Work Practice 191
Critical Analysis 192
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 196
Philosophical Underpinnings 197
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 198
Summary 200
Chapter 8 Theories of Life Span Development 201
Historical Context 202
Key Concepts 202
Theoretical Knowledge About Physical Development 203
Theoretical Knowledge About Sexual Development 204
Theoretical Knowledge About Neurobiology
and Neurotransmission 209
Theories of Psychosocial Development: The Life Span
Approach 213
Roads from Erikson 218
Theories of Midlife Development 219
x Contents

Life Span Development and Late Adulthood 224

Life Span Development of Women 228
Shame Resilience Theory 231
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Questioning and
Intersexed Identity Development 236
Stage Theories: Popularity Versus Validity 248
Contemporary Issues 249
Application to Social Work Practice 250
Critical Analysis 253
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 255
Philosophical Underpinnings 256
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 257
Summary 259

Chapter 9 Theories of Cognitive and Moral Development 260

Historical Context 261
Cognitive Development 262
Moral Development 275
Contemporary Issues 285
Application to Social Work Practice 286
Critical Analysis 290
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 292
Philosophical Underpinnings 293
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 294
Summary 296

Chapter 10 Symbolic Interaction 297

Historical Context 298
Key Concepts 298
The Chicago School and Early Interactionism 299
Roads from Mead 303
Role Theory, Reference Groups, and Socialization through the
Life Cycle 309
Contemporary Issues 313
Application to Social Work Practice 313
Critical Analysis 316
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 318
Philosophical Underpinnings 319
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 320
Summary 321
 Contents xi

Chapter 11 Phenomenology, Social Constructionism, and Hermeneutics 322

Historical Context 323
Key Concepts 325
Roads from Schutz 327
Contemporary Issues 336
Application to Social Work Practice 337
Critical Analysis 340
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 341
Philosophical Underpinnings 342
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 343
Summary 344

Chapter 12 Behaviorism, Social Learning, and Exchange Theory 345

Behaviorism 346
Social Learning Theory 351
Exchange Theory 358
Contemporary Issues 364
Application to Social Work Practice 365
Critical Analysis 369
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 372
Philosophical Underpinnings 373
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 374
Summary 376

Chapter 13 Transpersonal Theory 377

Historical Context 378
Key Concepts 379
Transpersonal Theories 380
Contemporary Issues 398
Application to Social Work Practice 399
Critical Analysis 402
Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 405
Philosophical Underpinnings 406
Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 407
Summary 408

Chapter 14 Application of Theories 409

Alternative Approaches to Theory Selection 410
Measuring Up to the Themes for Critical Reflection on Theories 411
Person-Focused Theories 412
xii Contents

Environment-Focused Theories 415

Twelve Great Ideas 419
An Example of Integrating Theories for a Practice Issue 423
Roads from Here: Future Possibilities and Challenges for Innovation
in Human Behavior Theory 428

References 430
Discography 472
Name Index 473
Subject Index 482
 FOREWORD

Theories of human behavior have been one of the foundational elements of professional knowl-
edge for social work throughout its 100-year history. The profession rose out of twin impulses:
helping people constructively surmount the problems of daily living and trying to understand
why this goal often proves difficult to achieve. Theories about human development and human
motivation became a lifeline in trying to make sense of this mysterious and extremely complex
area of study.
The typical route to helping students learn about human behavior has been the presentation
of a small array of theories, the choice influenced by the historical period, and the intellectual
preferences of a school and its faculty. In some cases, students of a particular period might study
in great depth only one theory as the theoretical basis for their practice. In a more common
approach, students are introduced to a variety of theories, each presented as having equal footing
with its peers. Students are then left to weave together bits of this and that to serve as a theoreti-
cal orientation to their practice. The first instance may lead to dogmatism—a belief that one par-
ticular theory is sufficient to inform practice. The second instance may lead to relativism—that
every theory is equally useful in shaping a view of how human beings grow and change.
In social work education, it is rare to find a text that consciously sets out to present theory
from a critical perspective. To do so, it is necessary to create a context larger than the theory to be
studied. If the only issue guiding investigation is to understand what authors intend, then stu-
dents learn to describe, analyze, and apply each theory, but they do not learn the art of critique.
What this book presents in a comprehensive way is the art and discipline of critique.
The basis for critique is a framework of concerns against which any theory can be judged.
As the authors so well present, the context of theory is filled with large preoccupations: ideolog-
ical positions, beliefs about what is normal and what is good, and constructions about how
people grow and change. This context is stretched to become even larger by adding the social,
political, and economic environments within which theory develops and is put to use. By bring-
ing this level of analysis to the study of human behavior theory, students not only learn the sub-
stance of a theory in a straightforward way, they also learn how to stand apart from a theory and
systematically compare it with other theories. The act of creating a set of concerns by which to
evaluate theory gives students a different standpoint. They are no longer passive consumers of
what is put before them. Instead, they become active knowers, whose critique of theory gives
them the power to assign their own judgments to the results. In this way, the study of human be-
havior theory can help achieve the sophisticated, complex, and independent thinking required of
good social work practitioners.
The authors have developed an impressively comprehensive presentation of theories for
faculty teaching human behavior. Their inclusion of theories of empowerment, phenomenology,
social constructionism, hermeneutics, and transpersonal theory is particularly notable because it
brings needed attention to points of view not typically presented in such full and careful fashion.
Also in contrast with existing texts, the array of theories focusing on broader cultural, political,
and economic perspectives offers a useful antidote to the insistent attention given to individual
and family functioning. In every case, students are asked to consider each theory in light of its
value roots and consequences, its inclusiveness, and its essential view of who people are and
what makes them tick.

xiii
xiv Foreword

In this text, Robbins, Chatterjee, and Canda have taken the study of human behavior theories
to a new level. In both substance and approach, they have established a new ground from which
students can view and interact with theory and its consequences. Theirs is an ambitious and intel-
lectually challenging approach, couched in a readable and reflective style. It is also a courageous
book. They have consciously chosen to focus on the issues surrounding the study of theory and,
in doing so, will assuredly raise the consciousness (and conscience) of readers. A critical per-
spective is ultimately a value-based approach, in which professional values become an explicit,
rather than submerged, element of focus. Calling theory to task for its assumptions about human
development and its consequences for practice inserts a level of analysis and reflection essential
to competent practice. This process is demanding, but it promises to more surely guide social
work toward its roots as a value-based profession. The authors deserve special recognition for
accomplishing this very significant task.
Ann Weick, PhD
Professor Emerita and Former Dean
University of Kansas
School of Social Welfare
 PREFACE

In revising this textbook for the third edition, we retained the overall structure of the first two
editions and added new theory content that we believe is critical for social work practice at the
beginning of the 21st century. In addition to many chapter updates, exciting new additions to the
theory base are:
• A full chapter on feminist theory
• Wilber’s full integral theory, which includes and transcends transpersonal experience
• Knowledge about normal childhood sexuality
• Expanded content on successful aging and geotranscendence
• Expanded content on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning and intersexed
(LGBTQI) persons
There is no question that human behavior is complex. It is this very complexity that makes
it difficult to design a single textbook that adequately covers the knowledge base necessary for
courses in the Human Behavior in the Social Environment (HBSE) curricular area. Most text-
books are based on either a social-systems perspective or a life-span development approach,
although some have now attempted to incorporate a slightly broader range of theory while retaining
an overall systemic or life-span approach. Books utilizing a social-systems perspective typically
have been organized according to systems levels; thus, content on individuals, groups, families,
organizations, institutions, and communities has been divided into separate chapters. In contrast,
those texts utilizing a life-span approach have been organized the same way as life-span text-
books found in psychology, with each chapter reflecting a different stage of the life span.
Although systems theory and developmental theory are important components of human
behavior knowledge, we believe that by themselves, they reflect a rather narrow and individual-
istic definition of human behavior and an underlying ideology that is, at its heart, politically
conservative.
We wrote this textbook with several purposes in mind. First, we hope to broaden the scope
of our social-work knowledge base about human behavior. Rather than relying on the largely
psychological (and traditional) approach to human behavior that utilizes a person-in-environment
framework, we have adopted a broader definition of human behavior that focuses on the person
and the environment, giving equal focus to each.
Second, we hope to expand our theoretical base in understanding human behavior. We
have chosen a multidisciplinary theoretical approach that incorporates relevant theory from a va-
riety of social and human science disciplines that have traditionally been omitted from HBSE
textbooks.
Third, we hope to illuminate the fact that all knowledge about human behavior is socially
constructed and thus is inherently value-laden and ideological. As such, our knowledge base re-
flects the values, concerns, and ideologies of not only the authors constructing theories and stud-
ies but also the prevalent values, concerns, and ideologies of the existing social order (historical
or contemporary).
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we hope to encourage critical thinking about the
knowledge and theories that we choose for practice. To accomplish this, we believe that it is im-
portant to use consistent standards to evaluate each theory and to provide a discussion and

xv
xvi Preface

critique of alternative views and an analysis of the social, ideological, and economic structures of
society that impact individual problems. Most often, critical thought and analysis of this nature
have been omitted from human behavior textbooks in social work.
Above all, we hope that this book will be intellectually challenging to BSW, MSW, and
PhD students alike and that it will encourage you, the reader, to question some of your most
deeply held assumptions about why people behave the way they do and to better understand the
role of various influences on human behavior.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book would not have become a reality without the support and assistance of many people.
First and foremost, we thank Carolyn Brooks, who provided consistent secretarial support and
encouragement throughout this entire first edition of this project. In addition, we would like to
thank Darlyne Bailey, Hwi-Ja Canda, Manjirnath Chatterjee, Marian Chatterjee, Jim Daniel,
Richard L. Edwards, Bob Fisher, Howard Goldstein (in memorium), Karen S. Haynes, Karen A.
Holmes, Darlene Hurt, Joe Kotarba, Daniel B. Lee, Walter Lee, Elizabeth Loftus, Carole
Marmell, Holly Nelson-Becker, Joe Paull (in memorium), Bill Simon (in memorium), Jack
Taylor, Terri Thomason, and Ann Weick. Thanks to Sachiko Gomi for assistance with literature
search and to Heather Larkin for a careful review of Chapter 12. We are also indebted to our
many students and colleagues who gave us feedback on the early drafts of these chapters.
We also acknowledge our chapter coauthors and contributors Barbara Becker (in memo-
rium), Brené Brown, Thomas M. Brown, David Lawson Burton, Graciela Couchonnal, Cynthia
Franklin, Fernando Javier Galan (in memorium), David Hussey, James McDonnell, Beverly
McPhail, Fred Richardson, Mende Snodgress, Kimberly Strom-Gottfried, and Joanne Yaffe.
In addition, we express our gratitude to the songwriters who contributed their lyrics to the
book chapters: Rick Beresford, Bobby Bridger, Chris Chandler, Allen Damron (in memorium),
Jim Daniel, Tom Dundee, Michael Elwood, Anne Feeney, Rex Foster, Tim Henderson, Anne
Hills, Rod MacDonald, Susan Martin, Bill Muse, Phil Rockstroh, David Roth, Hans Theessink,
and Bill Ward. Special thanks also go to Lendell Braud, Blair Powell (in memorium), and the
Conroe Association of Live Music, and to Rod Kennedy, Nancylee Kennedy, Dalis Allen, and the
Kerrville Folk Festival.
Thanks to reviewers Steve Applewhite, University of Houston; Sharon Moore, University
of Louisville; Melanie Otis, University of Kentucky; Dana Sullivan, University of Louisville. We
also express our thanks to the initial reviewers Paul Abels (California State University Long
Beach), Beverly Black (Wayne State University), Eugene Jackson (Purdue University), Betty
J. Kramer (University of Wisconsin-Madison), Ferol E. Mennen (University of Southern
California), Georgianna Shepard (State University of New York, Brockport), and Elizabeth
L. Torre (Tulane University) for their time and input.
Finally, we thank Ashley Dodge at Pearson and Beth Kluckhohn at PreMediaGlobal for
their infinite patience and continued encouragement and assistance with this book.

xvii
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