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METAL FORMING, THIRD EDITION

This book is designed to help the engineer understand the principles of metal
forming and analyze forming problems – both the mechanics of forming processes
and how the properties of metals interact with the processes. The first third of
the book is devoted to fundamentals of mechanics and materials; the middle to
analyses of bulk forming processes such as drawing, extrusion, and rolling; and
the last third covers sheet forming processes. In this new third edition, an entire
chapter has been devoted to forming limit diagrams; another to various aspects
of stamping, including the use of tailor-welded blanks; and another to other sheet
forming operations, including hydroforming of tubes. Sheet testing is covered in
a later chapter. Coverage of sheet metal properties has been expanded to include
new materials and more on aluminum alloys. Interesting end-of-chapter notes and
references have been added throughout. More than 200 end-of-chapter problems
are also included.

William F. Hosford is a Professor Emeritus of Materials Science and Engineering

at the University of Michigan. Professor Hosford is the author of more than 80
technical articles and a number of books, including the leading selling Mechanics
of Crystals and Textured Polycrystals, Physical Metallurgy, Mechanical Behavior
of Materials, and Materials Science: An Intermediate Text.

Robert M. Caddell was a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of

Michigan, Ann Arbor.

i
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ii
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METAL FORMING
Mechanics and Metallurgy

THIRD EDITION

WILLIAM F. HOSFORD
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

ROBERT M. CADDELL
Late of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

iii
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521881210

© William F. Hosford 2007

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2007

ISBN-13 978-0-511-35453-3 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-10 0-511-35453-3 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-88121-0 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-88121-8 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents

Preface to Third Edition page xiii

1 Stress and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Stress 1
1.2 Stress transformation 2
1.3 Principal stresses 4
1.4 Mohr’s circle equations 5
1.5 Strain 7
1.6 Small strains 9
1.7 The strain tensor 10
1.8 Isotropic elasticity 10
1.9 Strain energy 11
1.10 Force and moment balances 12
1.11 Boundary conditions 13
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
APPENDIX – EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Yield criteria 17
2.2 Tresca criterion 18
2.3 Von Mises criterion 20
2.4 Plastic work 21
2.5 Effective stress 22
2.6 Effective strain 22
2.7 Flow rules 23
2.8 Normality principle 25
2.9 Derivation of the von Mises effective strain 26
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

v
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REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 Strain Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1 The tension test 30
3.2 Elastic–plastic transition 32
3.3 Engineering vs. true stress and strain 32
3.4 A power-law expression 34
3.5 Other strain hardening approximations 36
3.6 Behavior during necking 36
3.7 Compression testing 38
3.8 Bulge testing 38
3.9 Plane-strain compression 39
3.10 Torsion testing 40
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4 Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1 Uniaxial tension 43
4.2 Effect of inhomogeneities 44
4.3 Balanced biaxial tension 45
4.4 Pressurized thin-wall sphere 47
4.5 Significance of instability 48
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5 Temperature and Strain-Rate Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.1 Strain rate 52
5.2 Superplasticity 55
5.3 Effect of inhomogeneities 58
5.4 Combined strain and strain-rate effects 62
5.5 Alternative description of strain-rate dependence 63
5.6 Temperature dependence of flow stress 65
5.7 Deformation mechanism maps 69
5.8 Hot working 69
5.9 Temperature rise during deformation 71
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6 Work Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.1 Ideal work 76
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CONTENTS vii

6.2 Extrusion and drawing 77

6.3 Deformation efficiency 78
6.4 Maximum drawing reduction 79
6.5 Effects of die angle and reduction 80
6.6 Swaging 81
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

7 Slab Analysis and Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

7.1 Sheet drawing 85
7.2 Wire and rod drawing 87
7.3 Friction in plane-strain compression 88
7.4 Sticking friction 90
7.5 Mixed sticking–sliding conditions 90
7.6 Constant shear stress interface 91
7.7 Axially symmetric compression 92
7.8 Sand-pile analogy 93
7.9 Flat rolling 93
7.10 Roll flattening 95
7.11 Roll bending 99
7.12 Coining 101
7.13 Dry friction 102
7.14 Lubricants 102
7.15 Experimental findings 103
7.16 Ring friction test 105
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

8 Upper-Bound Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

8.1 Upper bounds 110
8.2 Energy dissipation on plane of shear 111
8.3 Plane-strain frictionless extrusion 112
8.4 Plane-strain frictionless indentation 116
8.5 Plane-strain compression 116
8.6 Another approach to upper bounds 119
8.7 Combined upper-bound analysis 120
8.8 Plane-strain drawing 121
8.9 Axisymmetric drawing 121
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

9 Slip-Line Field Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

9.1 Introduction 128
9.2 Governing stress equations 128
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9.3 Boundary conditions 132

9.4 Plane-strain indentation 133
9.5 Hodographs for slip-line fields 134
9.6 Plane-strain extrusion 135
9.7 Energy dissipation in a slip-line field 137
9.8 Metal distortion 137
9.9 Indentation of thick slabs 138
9.10 Plane-strain drawing 142
9.11 Constant shear–stress interfaces 146
9.12 Pipe formation 147
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

10 Deformation-Zone Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

10.1 The
parameter 163
10.2 Friction 164
10.3 Redundant deformation 164
10.4 Inhomogeneity 166
10.5 Internal damage 171
10.6 Residual stresses 175
10.7 Comparison of plane-strain and axisymmetric deformation 178
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

11 Formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.1 Ductility 182
11.2 Metallurgy 182
11.3 Ductile fracture 186
11.4 Hydrostatic stress 187
11.5 Bulk formability tests 191
11.6 Formability in hot working 192
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

12 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.1 Sheet bending 195
12.2 Bending with superimposed tension 198
12.3 Neutral axis shift 200
12.4 Bendability 201
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12.5 Shape bending 202

12.6 Forming limits in bending 203
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

13 Plastic Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

13.1 Crystallographic basis 207
13.2 Measurement of R 209
13.3 Hill’s anisotropic plasticity theory 209
13.4 Special cases of Hill’s yield criterion 211
13.5 Nonquadratic yield criteria 212
13.6 Calculation of anisotropy from crystallographic considerations 215
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

14 Cupping, Redrawing, and Ironing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

14.1 Cup drawing 220
14.2 Anisotropic effects in drawing 223
14.3 Effects of strain hardening in drawing 224
14.4 Analysis of assumptions 225
14.5 Effects of tooling on cup drawing 227
14.6 Earing 228
14.7 Redrawing 230
14.8 Ironing 231
14.9 Residual stresses 233
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

15 Forming Limit Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

15.1 Localized necking 237
15.2 Forming limit diagrams 241
15.3 Experimental determination of FLDs 242
15.4 Calculation of forming limit diagrams 244
15.5 Factors affecting forming limits 247
15.6 Changing strain paths 251
15.7 Stress-based forming limits 253
NOTE OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
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16 Stamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
16.1 Stamping 255
16.2 Draw beads 255
16.3 Strain distribution 257
16.4 Loose metal and wrinkling 258
16.5 Flanging 259
16.6 Springback 260
16.7 Strain signatures 261
16.8 Tailor-welded blanks 261
16.9 Die design 262
16.10 Toughness and sheet tearing 265
16.11 General observations 267
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

17 Other Sheet-Forming Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

17.1 Roll forming 270
17.2 Spinning 271
17.3 Hydroforming of tubes 272
17.4 Free expansion of tubes 272
17.5 Hydroforming into square cross section 274
17.6 Bent sections 276
17.7 Shearing 276
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

18 Formability Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

18.1 Cupping tests 279
18.2 LDH test 281
18.3 Post-uniform elongation 282
18.4 OSU formability test 282
18.5 Hole expansion 283
18.6 Hydraulic bulge test 284
18.7 Duncan friction test 285
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

19 Sheet Metal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

19.1 Introduction 289
19.2 Surface appearance 290
19.3 Strain aging 290
19.4 Aluminum-killed steels 295
19.5 Interstitial-free steels 295
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CONTENTS xi

19.6 HSLA steels 295

19.7 Dual-phase and complex-phase steels 296
19.8 Transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels 296
19.9 Martensitic steels 297
19.10 Trends 297
19.11 Special sheet steels 298
19.12 Surface treatment 298
19.13 Stainless steels 299
19.14 Aluminum alloys 300
19.15 Copper and brass 302
19.16 Hexagonal close-packed metals 303
19.17 Tooling 305
19.18 Product uniformity 305
NOTES OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Index 309
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xii
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Preface to Third Edition

My coauthor Robert Caddell died in 1990. I have greatly missed interacting with him.
The biggest changes from the second edition are an enlargement and reorganization
of the last third of the book, which deals with sheet metal forming. Changes have been
made to the chapters on bending, plastic anisotropy, and cup drawing. An entire chapter
has been devoted to forming limit diagrams. There is one chapter on various aspects
of stampings, including the use of tailor-welded blanks, and another on other sheet-
forming operations, including hydroforming of tubes. Sheet testing is covered in a
separate chapter. The chapter on sheet metal properties has been expanded to include
newer materials and more depth on aluminum alloys.
In addition, some changes have been made to the chapter on strain-rate sensitivity.
A treatment of friction and lubrication has been added. A short treatment of swaging
has been added. End-of-chapter notes have been added for interest and additional
end-of-chapter references have been added.
No attempt has been made in this book to introduce numerical methods such as
finite element analyses. The book Metal Forming Analysis by R. H. Wagoner and J. L.
Chenot (Cambridge University Press, 2001) covers the latest numerical techniques.
We feel that one should have a thorough understanding of a process before attempting
numerical techniques. It is vital to understand what constitutive relations are imbedded
in a program before using it. For example, the use of Hill’s 1948 anisotropic yield
criterion can lead to significant errors.
Joining techniques such as laser welding and friction welding are not covered.
I wish to acknowledge the membership in the North American Deep Drawing
Group from which I have learned much about sheet metal forming. Particular thanks
are given to Alejandro Graf of ALCAN, Robert Wagoner of the Ohio State University,
John Duncan of the University of Auckland, Thomas Stoughton and David Meuleman
of General Motors, and Edmund Herman of Creative Concepts.

xiii
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xiv
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1 Stress and Strain

An understanding of stress and strain is essential for analyzing metal forming oper-
ations. Often the words stress and strain are used synonymously by the nonscientific
public. In engineering, however, stress is the intensity of force and strain is a measure
of the amount of deformation.

1.1 STRESS
Stress is defined as the intensity of force, F, at a point.
σ = ∂ F/∂ A as ∂ A → 0, (1.1)
where A is the area on which the force acts.
If the stress is the same everywhere,
σ = F/A. (1.2)
There are nine components of stress as shown in Figure 1.1. A normal stress component
is one in which the force is acting normal to the plane. It may be tensile or compressive.
A shear stress component is one in which the force acts parallel to the plane.
Stress components are defined with two subscripts. The first denotes the normal
to the plane on which the force acts and the second is the direction of the force.∗ For
example, σx x is a tensile stress in the x-direction. A shear stress acting on the x-plane
in the y-direction is denoted σx y .
Repeated subscripts (e.g., σx x , σ yy , σzz ) indicate normal stresses. They are tensile
if both subscripts are positive or both are negative. If one is positive and the other
is negative, they are compressive. Mixed subscripts (e.g., σzx , σx y , σ yz ) denote shear
stresses. A state of stress in tensor notation is expressed as




σx x σ yx σzx







σi j =
σx y σ yy σzy
, (1.3)




σx z σ yz σzz

∗
The use of the opposite convention should cause no problem because σi j = σ ji .

1
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2 STRESS AND STRAIN

z σzz

σzy
σzx
σyz
σxz 1.1. Nine components of stress acting on an
σyy
σyx infinitesimal element.
σxy
σxx
y

where i and j are iterated over x, y, and z. Except where tensor notation is required, it
is simpler to use a single subscript for a normal stress and denote a shear stress by τ .
For example, σx ≡ σx x and τx y ≡ σx y .

1.2 STRESS TRANSFORMATION

Stress components expressed along one set of axes may be expressed along any other
set of axes. Consider resolving the stress component σ y = Fy /Ay onto the x and y axes
as shown in Figure 1.2.
The force Fy in the y direction is Fy = Fy cos θ and the area normal to y is
A y  = A y / cos θ, so

σ y  = Fy  /A y  = Fy cos θ/(A y / cos θ) = σ y cos2 θ. (1.4a)

Similarly

τ y  x  = Fx  /A y  = Fy sin θ/(A y / cos θ) = σ y cos θ sin θ. (1.4b)

Note that transformation of stresses requires two sine and/or cosine terms.
Pairs of shear stresses with the same subscripts in reverse order are always equal
(e.g., τi j = τ ji ). This is illustrated in Figure 1.3 by a simple moment balance on an

y Fy

Fy

Ay
1.2. The stresses acting on a plane, A  , under a
Fx normal stress, σy .

x
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