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Wind Energy
Engineering
About the Author
Pramod Jain, Ph.D., is founder and president of Innovative Wind Energy,
Inc., a wind energy consulting company. He is recognized as a global
expert in the planning of wind projects and has worked on projects in the
United States, the Caribbean, and Latin America that range from a single
100-kW turbine to a 100-plus MW wind farm. He has worked on wind
projects for a variety of clients including Fortune 100 companies, the US
government, universities, utilities, municipalities, and land developers.
He was a cofounder and Chief Technologist at Wind Energy Consulting
and Contracting, Inc. He has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the
University of California, Berkeley, an M.S. from University of Kentucky,
Lexington, and a B.Tech. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai.
Wind Energy
Engineering
Pramod Jain

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To my mother Manchi Jain, and late father U.M. Jain
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
1 Overview of Wind Energy Business . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Worldwide Business of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cost of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Benefits of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Wind Energy Is Not a Panacea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Basics of Wind Energy and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Kinetic Energy of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sensitivity of Power to Rotor Radius
and Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Basic Concepts/Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Derivation of Betz Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Meaning of Betz Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Wind versus Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Properties of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
How Is Wind Generated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Statistical Distribution of Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mean and Mode of Weibull Distribution
for Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Power Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Wind Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Wind Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Understanding Wind Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Density of Air as a Function of Elevation . . . . . . . . 37
Density of Air as a Function of Humidity . . . . . 39
4 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . 41
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

vii
viii Contents

Relative Velocity of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Rotor Disk Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Lift Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Equal Transit Time Fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Rotation Fluid Flow, Circulation, and Vortices . . 51
Real Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Flow of Fluid over an Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Effect of Reynolds Number on Lift and Drag
Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Drag-Based Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5 Advanced Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades . 63
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Blade Element Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Constant-Speed Turbines, Stall-versus
Pitch-Regulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Variable-Speed Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Power Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6 Wind Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Definition of Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Configurations to Measure Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Calibration of Anemometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Wind Vane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Placement of Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Impact of Inflow Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Impact of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Uncertainty in Wind Speed Measurement
with Anemometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Example of Error Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Other Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Data Logger and Communication Device . . . . . 89
Designing a Wind Measurement Campaign . . . . . . 90
Installation of Met-Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example of Met-Tower Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Computed Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Wind Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Air Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Power Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
 Contents ix

Remote Sensing to Measure Wind Speed . . . . . . . . 105

Pros and Cons of Remote Sensing for Wind
Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7 Wind Resource Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Overview of Wind Resource Assessment . . . . . . . . 111
Source of Wind Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Resource Estimation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Mesoscale Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
CFD Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
WAsP, a Microscale Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Phases of Resource Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Preliminary Wind Resource Assessment . . . . . . . . 123
Wind Resource Map Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Preliminary Analysis of Data from Neighboring
Airports and Other Met-Towers . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Detailed Analysis of Wind Data from Neighboring
Airports and Other Met-Towers . . . . . . . . . 125
Onsite Wind Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Spatial Extrapolation of Wind Resources from
Measured Locations to Planned Wind Turbine
Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Hindcasting/MCP of Measured Data . . . . . . . . . . 127
Predict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Annual Energy Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8 Advanced Wind Resource Assessment . . . . . . . . . 147
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Extreme Wind Speed (EWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
WAsP Model in Rugged Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Wake of Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
N.O. Jensen Model for Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Ainslie’s Eddy Viscosity Model . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Combining Wind Speed Deficits from
Multiple Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Optimal Layout of Turbines in Wind Farm . . . . . . . 156
Wind Turbine Class Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Estimation of Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Uncertainty Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Estimating Uncertainty of Annual Energy Production:
Framework for Combining Uncertainty . . . . . . . 165
Nonbankable versus Bankable Resource Estimates . . 167
x Contents

9 Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) Components . . . . 169

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Rotor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Rotor Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Alternative Configurations of Turbines . . . . . . . . . 173
Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Nacelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Yaw Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Nacelle Housing and Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Lifting/Lowering Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Spread-Footing Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Design Loads of Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Design Wind Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Normal Wind Profile Model (NWP) . . . . . . . . 186
Extreme Wind Speed Model (EWM) . . . . . . . . 188
Turbine Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10 Basics of Electricity and Generators . . . . . . . . . . 197
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Basic Principles of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . 197
Faraday’s Law of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Lenz Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Lorenz Law or Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Basic Principles of Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . 199
Basic Principles of Electrical Machines . . . . . . . . . 200
Conversion of Mechanical to Electrical Power . . 202
Synchronous Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Analysis of Synchronous Generator . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Variable-Speed Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Direct-Drive Synchronous Generator (DDSG) . . 211
Asynchronous Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Variable Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11 Deploying Wind Turbines in Grid . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
What Happens on a Grid When There Is
No Wind? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
“Scheduling” and Dispatch of Wind
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
 Contents xi

Single-Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Transmission and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Standards for Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Power Factor and Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . 229
Low-Voltage Ride-Through . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Power Quality: Flicker, and Harmonics . . . . . . . . . 232
Short-Circuit Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Wind Farm Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Grounding for Overvoltage and Lightning
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Lightning Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Transformers for Wind Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Wind-Plant Interconnection and
Transmission Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Transmission Bottlenecks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
SCADA Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12 Environmental Impact of Wind Projects . . . . . . . . 247
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Framework for Analyzing Environmental Impact . . 248
Context of Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . 248
Temporal and Spatial Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Cumulative Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Quick Comparison of Wind Versus Fossil Fuel–Based
Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Impact of Wind Farms on Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Noise from Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Mitigation of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Low-Frequency Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Shadow Flicker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Aesthetic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Hazard to Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Electromagnetic Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Microwave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
T V and Radio Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
13 Financial Modeling of Wind Projects . . . . . . . . . . 269
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Financial Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Revenue Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
xii Contents

Renewable Energy Credits and Carbon

Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Revenue Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Cost of Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Cost of Foundation, Erection, Access Roads,
and Other Civil Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Substation, Control System, Cables, Installation,
and Others Related to Grid Connection . . . . 279
Other Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Operating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Depreciation and Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Financial Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Income Statement and Cash Flow for a
Wind Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Balance Sheet for a Wind Project . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Financial Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Net Present Value (NPV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Payback Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Impact of Tax Credits and Accelerated
Depreciation on Financial Performance . . . . . 287
Financing and Structure of Wind Projects . . . . . . . . 294
Financial Evaluation of Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . 297
14 Planning and Execution of Wind Projects . . . . . . . 301
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
High-Level Project Plan and Timeline . . . . . . . . . . 301
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Wind Measurement and Detailed Wind
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Project Siting, Interconnection, and PPA . . . . . . 305
Project Engineering and Procurement . . . . . . . 307
Project Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Construction, Installation, and Commissioning . . . . 313
Construction of Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Site Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Foundation Construction and Turbine Erection . 315
Collection System and Substation Construction . 318
Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
 Preface

I
have been interested in writing short technical articles from my
graduate school days. I was never good at it. In those days, I
supposedly wrote dense stuff, and the audience I had in mind were
experts in the field. This changed as I wrote for a corporate audience.
When I got into the wind business, I wrote white papers and blogs
regularly but never considered writing a book. The idea of writing this
book came to me from a dear friend Satya Komatineni, author of books
on Android. He encouraged me to send a proposal to McGraw-Hill
about the book. This led me down to a nine-month long adventure.
The best metaphor to describe the adventure is that writing a book is
akin to the nine-month process of gestation and birthing of the first
child. Although I have not personally experienced it, I have lived with
someone who has. It is exciting, uncomfortable, painful, at times really
painful, and in the end, the product makes you forget the pain.
The impetus for writing this book was the lack of books on the
market that targeted engineers. Specifically, I wanted to write a book
that would give an engineer, from any discipline, sufficient knowledge
about the multidisciplinary field of wind energy. This book intends
to bring to bear at least five disciplines in order to provide a reason-
ably comprehensive understanding of the field of wind energy. The
five disciplines are meteorology, mechanical and aeronautical engi-
neering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and environmental
engineering. In addition, to these core engineering disciplines, the
book has chapters on finance and project management, two business-
related disciplines that are key to wind energy.
I wrote the book with the following audiences in mind. First are
engineers and scientists in the wind industry but who practice in a
narrow segment of the industry that covers their specific discipline.
Second are engineers and scientists who want to enter the wind in-
dustry. Third are undergraduate engineering students and technical
college students who want to learn about the various disciplines in

xiii
xiv Preface

wind energy engineering. Finally, another intended audience is com-

prised of business people and project managers who work in the wind
energy industry.
Engineers will find sufficient detail about each of the topics. I have
kept the math to a level that would be comfortable for a practicing
engineer. In areas that require sophisticated math, I have attempted
to provide insights into the relationships.
As with any endeavor, I had to make decisions about what to
include in the book and what to leave out. I chose to leave out of
the book discussions and debates about climate change and energy
policy. Although these are critical to understanding the big picture,
I am not particularly qualified to write about these issues. Wherever
appropriate, I have briefly discussed these two topics. This book is not
an engineering design manual for turbines. The exposition on turbines
is limited to describing the major components and their functions; it
does not cover the complexity of computing forces and displacements
nor design and engineering of the components.
The book starts with a brief description of the wind energy busi-
ness with an emphasis on the explosive growth witnessed by the wind
energy industry. Although such an explosive growth rate is difficult
to sustain for long periods, I believe that the wind industry will ex-
perience sustained 15 to 20% growth over the next decade. On the
basis of this conservative estimate, there will be a healthy demand for
engineers, technicians, scientists, project managers, and financiers for
years to come.
The second chapter of the book introduces readers to the concepts
of energy and power, what kind and how much energy is contained
in wind, and how much of it can be captured by a wind turbine.
The third chapter describes properties of wind from a meteorolog-
ical perspective. It starts with a description of how wind is generated.
Next, the statistical nature of wind speed is described, followed by the
impact of height on wind speed. The chapter then concludes with de-
pendence of wind energy on air density and dependence of air density
on temperature, pressure, and humidity.
The fourth chapter describes the mechanics of how wind energy is
converted into mechanical energy using aerodynamics of blades. This
is important in order to understand the functioning of a wind turbine.
The fifth chapter presents a more detailed exposition on the aerody-
namics of blades and how power performance curves of turbines are
created.
The sixth chapter switches from the science of energy and airflow
to the science of measurement. Measurement of wind speed is a crucial
step in a wind project because all utility scale projects require it, and
 Preface xv

in most cases, it is the longest duration task. Measurement is a key

step in reducing uncertainty related to the financial performance of a
wind project.
The seventh chapter deals with wind resource assessment. It is an-
other pivotal step in the development phase of a wind project. In this
chapter, different methods of assessment are covered, from methods
based on publicly available wind data and no onsite measurements,
to methods that extrapolate measured data along three spatial axes
and the temporal axis. In the eighth chapter, advanced wind resource
assessment topics such as computation of extreme wind speed, and
modeling of rough terrain and wake are described. Losses and un-
certainty associated with the various components of wind resource
assessment are also covered in this chapter.
The ninth chapter describes the components of a wind turbine gen-
erator. The rotor system, nacelle, and tower and foundation systems
are described. The components of these three systems are described
for different types of utility scale turbines.
The tenth chapter deals with the electrical side of wind energy.
Basic concepts of electricity and magnetism are covered followed by
description of various types of generators used in wind turbines. In the
eleventh chapter, the integration with an electricity grid is described.
It covers how the variability of wind energy is incorporated in the
grid, the grid interconnection standards, and the protection systems
required in a wind farm. In addition, several topologies of wind farm
from an electrical standpoint are explained.
The twelfth chapter covers the environmental impact of wind
projects. It begins by setting the context for relative impact relative
to fossil fuel-based generation. In the chapter, each of the environ-
mental impacts: wildlife, noise, esthetics, shadow flicker, and others
are described. In addition, impact on aviation, radar, and telecommu-
nications are described.
The thirteenth chapter describes financial models used to evalu-
ate wind energy projects. In this chapter, the various components of
revenue, capital costs, and recurring costs are described. The impact
of incentives, in particular tax incentives in the United States, on the
financial performance is detailed. Finally, the financial performance
measures used to evaluate wind projects are described.
The fourteenth and final chapter describes planning and execu-
tion of wind projects. This chapter will serve as a guide to project
managers of wind energy projects during development, construction
and commissioning, and operations.
I learned a lot while writing this book. There were quite a few
things that I was certain were true but which turned out to be not so
xvi Preface

true. There were more things that I had explained with confidence
to colleagues and clients, which turned out to be full of holes and
superficial, at best. I hope the book serves a similar purpose in helping
you to better understand wind energy.

Pramod Jain
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