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International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques
Internationaler Verband der bibliothekarischen Vereine und Institutionen
Mem/tyHapoAHa« «DtAepaumi BHÖflHOTCMHbix AccouHauHfi h yipeacÄCHHtt
Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y Bibliotecas
I FLA Publications 101

The Ethics of Librarianship:

An International Survey

Edited by
Robert W. Vaagan
with an introduction by
Alex Byrne, chairman of I FLA /FAI FE

Κ · G · Saur München 2002

IFLA Publications
edited by Sjoerd Koopman

Recommended catalogue entry:

The ethics of librarianship: an international survey /

[International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions],
Ed. by Robert W. Vaagan. With an introd. by Alex Byrne.
- München : Saur, 2002, VI, 344 p. 21 cm
(IFLA publications ; 101)
ISBN 3-598-21831-1

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

The ethics of librarianship: an international survey /

[International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions].
Ed. by Robert W. Vaagan. With an introd. by Alex Byrne. - München : Saur, 2002
(IFLA publications ; 101)
ISBN 3-598-21831-1

Printed on acid-free paper

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National
Standard for Information Sciences - Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,
ANSI Z39.48.1984.

© 2002 by International Federation of Library Associations

and Institutions, The Hague, The Netherlands
Alle Rechte vorbehalten / All Rights Strictly Reserved
Κ. G. Saur Verlag GmbH, München 2002
Printed in Germany

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system of any nature, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Printed I Bound by Strauss Offsetdruck, Mörlenbach

ISBN 3-598-21831-1
ISSN 0344-6891 (IFLA Publications)
CONTENTS

Foreword
by Robert W.Vaagan 1

IntroductionEthics for a New Millenium

Information

by Alex Byrne 8

Argentina
Argentine librarians, freedom of speech and ethical aspects
of public service

by Stella Maris Fernández 19

Canada
Ethics and the Canadian Library Association: Building on a
Philosophical Foundation of Intellectual Freedom

by Toni Samek 35

Costa Rica ethics in Costa Rica

Librarianship

by Deyanira Sequiera 59

Estonia
Collaboration between Estonian Librarians' Association and
Estonian Libraries

by Maije Tamre 81

Finland
Professional Ethics — A Finnish Outlook

by Kerstin Sevón 96

Iceland
Librarians and information specialist ethical issues:
an Icelandic perspective

by Svava H.Friögeirsdottir 123

Japan
The Code of Ethics of The Japan Library Association

by Yasuyo Inouye . 142

Lithuania
Ethics — A New Challenge for Lithuanian Librarians

by Vita Mozuraite 163

Mexico
Librarianship
by Rosa Maríaand ethics indeMexico
Fernández Zamora and Martín Vera Cabañas 177
Norway
Norwegian librarianship, ethics and ABM

by Robert W. Vaagan 192

Russia
The Russian Librarian's Professional Ethics Code

by Julia P. Melentieva 209

Russian Librarian Ethics and the Internet

by Irina Trushina 218

South Africa
Librarian ethics in South Africa

by Ramesh Jayaram 229

Sweden
Roundabouts to the professional highway. On the development of
a Code of ethics for Swedish librarians

by Britt Marie Häggström 245

Thailand
The Code of Ethics of the Thai Library Association

by Khunying Maenmas Chavalit 265

Uganda
Librarianship and Professional Ethics: The Case for Uganda

by Charles Batambuze and Dick Kawooya 283

United Kingdom
Doing the right thing: professional ethics for information
workers in Britain

by Paul Sturges 302

United
Trends States
of of America
Library Associations and Ethics in the US
by Wallace Koehler 323
About the contributors 338
 FOREWORD

Robert W.Vaagan,
Faculty of Journalism, Library and Information Science,
Oslo University College

Ethical considerations, not least the intellectual freedoms of opinion and expression,

which are reflected both in the core values of EFLA and in the activities of FAIFE, have

long been a concern for librarians and library associations.1 Following the creation of

The Journal of Information Ethics in 1992 it is apparent that LIS research has also

become more attentive to ethics. Thus The Library Bill of Rights of The American

Library Association has been analysed in terms of ethical presuppositions in

utilitarianism, natural rights theory and social contract theory.2 Despite this ethical

awareness only in some countries have library associations or government agencies

formally adopted written codes of ethics or conduct to provide recommended standards

of best practice.

Today as the information age unfolds there are many indications of a growing

need for this type of moral benchmarking. As most of the articles in the present volume

reflect, librarianship and the wider LIS field are facing various challenges where ethical

considerations come into play. A shortlist of potentially divisive issues with ethical

aspects would include globalisation, the digital gap between the information rich and

poor, digital inclusiveness, commercialisation of information versus interactive on-line

public services, privacy, authenticity, confidentiality, trust and confidence in

cyberspace, censorship, copyright, intellectual property rights, grey literature, electronic

filters and the consequences of The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).

Moreover, post-September 11, 2001 anti—terrorist legislation in many countries, which

1
is intended to target terrorists, also causes ethical concern that such legislation may

threaten to restrict ordinary citizens' free access to information and freedom of

expression.

The relevance of ethics is becoming more apparent as librarianship and the LIS

field are being reshaped, e.g. inducing several LIS authors over the last years to reaffirm

the traditional values of librarianship as librarians go about their traditionally main task

of cataloguing, preserving and transmitting the human record.3 Yet in the information

age the librarian is increasingly cast as an information specialist. In consequence "ethics

of librarianship" overlaps conceptually with "infoethics", as both the introduction as

well as the contributions from the United Kingdom, Estonia and Iceland in the present

volume all reflect. Based on UNESCO's planned global infoethics code to be launched

in 2003, and the increasing relevance of infoethics, 4 it is reasonable to posit that ethics

(under tables such as ethics of librarianship, LIS ethics, infoethics, cyberethics etc), will

form part of the traffic rules that will apply to what some have metaphorically described

as the global information superhighway of the new millennium.5

On the threshold of the new millenium it causes concern that we may have to

accept information overload (infobogs) and information fatigue ("the IFS syndrome") as

permanent features. 6 Also causing concern is the observation by some LIS authors that

the theme of survival appears repeatedly in the LIS education literature.7 Of course LIS

education cannot be exempted from the current reshaping of the LIS field. While some

see traditional librarianship values as a remedy, others prescribe the acquisition of new

information age skills, converting librarians into "infopreneurs", which raises other

ethical considerations including those of the market place. Many, if not most, of the

articles in the present volume support the view that LIS education should accord greater

importance to ethics. This, it would seem, applies not least to countries which for

2
various reasons lack appropriate codes of ethics or codes of conduct. From this

perspective the contributions from Argentina, South Africa, Uganda are cases in point.

Also interesting are countries with partial solutions like Mexico (a code of ethics but

only for Colegio member librarians with academic degrees) and Norway (a code of

ethics but only for academic and special libraries).

We now see that also mid-career librarians in many cases see a need for

acquiring new skills in moral benchmarking: In Denmark (which lacks a code of

librarianship ethics) a recent study shows that a clear majority of leaders of Danish

public libraries want to gain new skills e.g. in value-based leadership (VBL), such as

ethical accounting.8

The genesis of The Ethics of Librarianship: An International Survey can be

attributed to the 11th Nordic Conference on Information and Documentation in

Reykjavik 30 May - 1 June 2001. In my paper I addressed the issue of ethics in

Norwegian librarianship. The ensuing debate provided me with valuable commentaries

from a number of colleagues. This prompted me into bringing together colleagues from

different countries to compile an international survey on ethics in librarianship. As

further discussed in my article, the book evolved parallel with my work chairing a

committee set up by the Norwegian National Office for Research Documentation,

Academic and Special Libraries, to formulate recommended ethical guidelines for

member libraries, a task completed in March 2002.

Whereas the FAIFE Website currently lists the ethical codes of selected national

library associations, there is a need for commentary and analysis of individual country

cases, both those listed by FAIFE and others. The present volume is designed to fill that

need: 12 countries with codes are included (Canada, Costa Rica, Estonia, Finland,

Iceland, Japan, Lithuania, Russia, Sweden, Thailand, UK and the USA) as well as 3

3
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without codes (Argentina, South Africa and Uganda) plus Mexico and Norway with

their partial solutions. The 18 contributions (including the introduction which also sheds

light on the situation in Australia) are all by experienced practitioners and academics

representing all hemispheres. Most of the articles are by single authors but two articles

(Mexico and Uganda) have been written jointly by two co-authors while one article

(Russia) consists of two distinct contributions. In some articles where existing codes are

either new, little known or not included in the FAEFE list, the codes have been included

in the articles. This is the case with e.g. Costa Rica, Estonia, Lithuania, Norway, Russia

and Thailand.

Many of the potentially divisive issues shortlisted initially are discussed in the

articles. Save for the introduction where FAIFE Chairman Alex Byrne has had a free

hand, it was suggested to the authors that they concentrate their reflections on the

unifying themes of historical background, library structure and organizational

considerations, constitutional and legal aspects, why codes of librarian ethics or codes

of conduct have (or have not) been adopted, the impact of the information age on

libraries and finally research and/or reflections on the impact which the codes (if any)

are perceived to have had on library activity.

As will be seen the contributions vary in content and detail, and each contributor

has weighted the assigned issues as well as other topics somewhat differently,

dependent on the author's interests, field of expertise and the regional/local context.

While all articles deal with the historical development of libraries and the issue of

librarianship ethics, some contributions are more marked by a troubled political past

combined with a fresh enthusiasm for the future. Such, in my view, are the articles from

Russia, Lithuania, Estonia and South Africa. Yet the future contains ethically difficult

issues, as the introduction notes, and which the Canadian contribution links to post-

4
September 11, 2001 developments such as freedom of expression for employee speech

in the workplace.

Compared with the medical profession's Hippocratic oath all professional ethical

codes are relatively recent phenomena. This view is bome out in all the articles. With

the exception of the American Library Association which published its first Code of

Ethics for Librarians in 1938, the codes discussed in the present volume were adopted in

their first versions in the latter half of the 20th century: Canada (1966), Costa Rica

(1974), Estonia (2001), Finland (1989), Iceland (1996), Japan (1980), Lithuania (1999),

Russia (1999), Sweden (1997), Thailand (1977), United Kingdom (1983). An

interesting observation is that the early creation of a national library association has

been no guarantee for the early adoption of codes of ethics: As discussed in the articles

from Japan and the United Kingdom, the first Japanese and British library associations

were established in 1892 and 1877, respectively. Both countries waited approximately

100 years before they adopted ethical codes. Norway, whose first library association can

be dated back to 1910, adopted recommended ethical guidelines in 2002, but only for

academic and special libraries.

The development and structure of public libraries, academic and special libraries

and school libraries are well brought out in many articles. Most articles proceed from

the assumption that librarianship is a profession, although this point remains open to

some discussion,9 as e.g. the Swedish article discusses. The paper from the United

Kingdom shows that both the profession and its ethics may alter when two previously

distinct organizations merge, as in the case of the British Chartered Institute of Library

and Information Professionals. Library associations and trade unions are the focus in the

Swedish contribution, whereas the American contribution has a comparative perspective

in its discussion of ethical codes in a broad range of library and information

5
organizations. Constitutional provision of the freedom of expression is taken for granted

in many countries but the legalities are sometimes complex as the Argentinian article

reflects.

The various steps in the process of developing a code of ethics are highlighted in

several articles, e.g. the British, Canadian, Finnish and Thai contributions. Perhaps

equally interesting are the processes that underlie the lack of codes (at least so far) in

Argentina, Mexico, South Africa, Uganda and partly Norway. The impact of the

information age on libraries and society is dealt with by all articles, and as will be seen

also explains why there are two distinct Russian contributions. But not all articles

identify, as does the one from Costa Rica, the digital gap as the primary ethical

challenge in the face of globalisation. In terms of research all articles include references

to relevant literature, which will be useful for further studies of individual countries. As

for the impact which the codes (if any) are perceived to have had on library activity,

each article, in my view, tells a unique story, and confirms the increasing relevance of

ethics in librarianship and in the wider LIS field.

I would like to express my thanks to all my colleagues and friends who have

contributed to this book. Their professionalism not only considerably simplified my task

as editor but helped bring together what we all see as a valuable, combined statement on

the growing relevance of ethics to librarianship and LIS. M y only regret is that for

practical reasons more countries could not be brought in. I hope the book will prove

valuable for college and university level students and teachers of librarianship and

information science, as well as for information professionals. I am particularly honoured

that the chairman of FAIFE, Mr. Alex Byrne, University of Technology, Sydney,

Australia, has contributed on behalf of FAIFE an introduction to the book

6
NOTES

1 The terra "ethics" has a variety o f meanings but in the context o f the present volume it can be defined as

"the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group",

cf. Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, Gramercy Books, New

York 1996, p. 489. For simplification "ethics" is used interchangeably with "morals" .

2 M. Frické et al (2000). "The Ethical Presuppositions Behind The Library Bill of Rights", The Library

Quarterly, Vol. 70, No. 4, October 2000, pp.468^491.

3 Michael Gorman (2000). Our Enduring Values. Librarianship in the 21" Century, Chicago:American

Library Association; Ronald B. McCabe (2001^. Civic Librarianship. Renewing the Social Mission of the

Public Library. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press

4 Martha Smith (2001). "Information Ethics", in: F.C.Lynden (2001) Advances in Librarianship, Vol. 25,

San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 29-66.

5 Manuel Castells (1997). The Information Age: Economy Society and Culture, Vol. Ill, p. 373.

6 Anne Goulding (2001) "Information Poverty or Overload", Journal of Librarianship and Information

Science, Vol. 33, No.3, September 2001, pp.109-111

7 Roma Harris, Margaret Ann Wilkinson (2001). "(Re)Positioning Librarians: How Young People View

the Information Sector", Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol.42, No.4, Fall

2001, pp.289-307

8 Nils Ole Pors, Carl Gustav Johannsen (2001). "Mellem New Public Management og vasrdiledelse.

Bibliotekledelse under krydspres", Proceedings, Nordic Seminar on Public Library Research, 10-11

December 2001, Copenhagen:Royal School of Library and Information Science, pp. 159-169.

' Charles Oppenheim and Natalie Pollecutt (2000). "Professional associations and ethical issues in LIS",

Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, Vol.32, No.4, December 2000, p.188.

7
 INTRODUCTION

INFORMATION ETHICS FOR A NEW MILLENIUM

Alex Byrne,
Chairman, FAIFE

It is a privilege to introduce this important collection of papers on professional ethics

for library and information services. This work brings together papers from many

countries reflecting both the diversity and commonality of our professional concerns

and our responses to their ethical dimensions. Common bonds of professionalism

unite us in dealing with the challenges of a troubled world. Most dramatically in the

past year, of course, was the destruction of the twin towers of the World Trade Centre

and its consequences. But professional challenges for the year also included

initiatives to rebuild and strengthen the libraries of countries ravaged by conflict,

continuing pressure to censor the Internet in many states and measures to muzzle

access to information in too many countries. The overarching concern remains

information inequality, the 'digital divide', the gross and growing inequality in access

to information for the inhabitants of rich and poor states and for rich and poor within

states.

All of these issues pose ethical conundrums for those of us who deliver library and

information services. We need to draw on our professional traditions, our moral

sensibilities and our commitments to the welfare of society in seeking to respond with

wisdom and compassion. Whether a school librarian trying to help a troubled

teenager or a documentalist dealing with records relating to the disposal of toxic

8
wastes, each of us needs to confront and deal with difficult dilemmas. We hope we

are able to resolve those challenges to the benefit of both the people who are

immediately involved and the wider community.

In the long and noble tradition of library and information work, we have maintained a

commitment to conserve the records of human enquiry and imagination. In doing this

we recognise and celebrate the interconnectedness of knowledge which transcends

natural and national borders, lifetimes, and the tenures of kings and governments.

Since the invention of the public library in the middle of the nineteenth century and

the diversification of libraries into so many types and models, we have increasingly

endeavoured to extend our services to the whole community. Sometimes we serve

the residents of a region or country, sometimes the members or clients of an

organisation or institution. In all cases we are professionally obliged to work to meet

their needs as well as possible and in a disinterested spirit.

The recognition of librarianship and other occupations as professions during the

nineteenth and twentieth centuries highlighted certain key characteristics including a

shared body of knowledge, a commitment to service to society and an agreed ethical

foundation [1], It later became important to codify the ethical expectations of

members of the profession, to develop an ethical framework which would be

appropriate to the field. Such expectations began to be expressed in terms of codes of

ethics which have moral force over the members of the profession. A code binds its

members to do good, or at least avoid doing harm, in the practice of the profession. It

might be enforced through legal or quasi-legal sanctions, although that is unusual in

library and information services.

9
The obligation to the individual patient or client has been extended to a wider

community whether city, state or institution. Following the Nuremberg trials after

World War Π, the responsibilities have been extended to humanity in general. They

have subsequently been joined by concerns to enhance environmental sustainability,

resist social exploitation and ensure commercial and legal transparency, among

others. The professional must actively contemplate the effects of his or her actions

both for the client and the community. Conflicting imperatives, particularly the

expectation to serve the client versus the expectation to serve the community, must be

resolved against an ethical framework in which the general good has priority and

disinterested practice is essential. Nuremberg conclusively articulated personal

responsibility: we cannot excuse our actions as 'just following orders' nor as accepted

practice.

Many ethical issues confront us in library and information service. The broad ethical

requirements have traditionally included accuracy, comprehensiveness, obligations to

the client, responsibilities to the community and the long term commitment to

preserve the record of knowledge. To those, we must add the wider concerns

mentioned above.

At the time of writing this Foreword, the trial of Slobodan Milosevic is proceeding

before an international court in The Hague. He has been charged with genocide and

related crimes stemming from the wars in Croatia in 1991 and Kosovo in 1999 and

actions in Bosnia. Libraries were destroyed or at least disrupted in all of those

hostilities but IFLA/FAIFE became involved particularly in the events in Kosovo

10
where it became clear that there had been a sustained campaign of 'cultural cleansing'

which had started around 1991 [2]. It included the harassment of Albanian speaking

staff, the removal and pulping of library resources in the Albanian language or

dealing with Albanian culture [3], Reminiscent of the Nazi destruction of 'Jewish'

books and 'degenerate' art, these actions sought to expunge Albanian culture from the

Kosovo/Kosova region. The trial will determine Milosevic's culpability. For us, the

question is the responsibility of librarians and libraries. What is the culpability of

those library staff members who were directly involved in the decade long process?

It was they who discriminated against their colleagues, they who identified materials

for removal and organised their removal and destruction, and they who changed

catalogue records. Can they claim the Nuremberg defence, that they were 'just

following orders'? What about those who were aware of the process of cultural

cleansing but stood by silently? Most of us were ignorant of those actions, should we

have cultivated greater watchfulness? How can we ensure that such a pattern of

events will never happen again?

These are big and challenging questions but they are not unique to the war torn

Balkans in that unhappy last decade of the twentieth century. A few other examples

will illustrate the broad extent of challenges to intellectual freedom concerning

libraries.

In the long running political interference by National Front local government

councillors in the south of France, many public librarians have distinguished

themselves by resisting instructions to remove allegedly left wing materials from their

libraries. Sadly, this has resulted in many losing their positions in those libraries.

11
Their resistance has been echoed in similar situations in other countries and notably

in the United States where the ALA Office of Intellectual Freedom provides strong

support for those who seek to uphold First Amendment rights.

However, even in the United States there is a need to continually reaffirm the ethical

responsibilities of library and information workers. In the wake of the ghastly events

of September 11, 2001, authorities sought to limit access to information. Media

organisations came under pressure to restrict the provision of information to the

public. Some claimed that uninhibited access to the Internet had facilitated the

attacks on the World Trade Center and other potential threats by making information

readily available and providing a ubiquitous and easy means of communication. In

the highly charged atmosphere following the attacks and during the preparations for

the bombardment and invasion of Afghanistan, the PATRIOT Act [4] was passed

and has since been emulated in other states. That Act significantly extended the

provisions which enable a wide range of law enforcement and security organisations

to monitor access to information by individuals. In one incident, a library staff

member informed the FBI that a client of Middle Eastern appearance was a potential

threat because he had sought maps of water catchment areas. The client's rights to

access information and to privacy were not considered, nor the host of possible

explanations for his interest in water catchment areas. It is especially in such

somewhat hysterical climates that professionals have a duty to remember their

professional ideals and commitments.

Concerns about the Internet have not, of course, been limited to its possible use by

terrorists. Many jurisdictions have considered the introduction of some form of

12
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