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Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java 2nd Edition Stefania Loredana Nita Instant Access 2025

The document is about the book 'Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java 2nd Edition' by Stefania Loredana Nita, which covers advanced algorithms and programming in Java related to cryptography. It includes various chapters on topics such as classical cryptography, quantum cryptography, and symmetric and asymmetric encryption schemes. The book is available in multiple formats and is aimed at providing a comprehensive understanding of cryptography principles and practices.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views138 pages

Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java 2nd Edition Stefania Loredana Nita Instant Access 2025

The document is about the book 'Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java 2nd Edition' by Stefania Loredana Nita, which covers advanced algorithms and programming in Java related to cryptography. It includes various chapters on topics such as classical cryptography, quantum cryptography, and symmetric and asymmetric encryption schemes. The book is available in multiple formats and is aimed at providing a comprehensive understanding of cryptography principles and practices.

Uploaded by

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© © All Rights Reserved
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Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java: Creating and Programming Advanced
Algorithms with Java SE 21 LTS and Jakarta EE 11

Stefania Loredana Nita Marius Iulian Mihailescu


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Table of Contents
About the Authors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ix

About the Technical Reviewer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xi

Chapter 1: Getting Started���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1


Theoretical Cryptography vs. Applied Cryptography��������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
Theoretical Cryptography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
Applied Cryptography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
Book Structure������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17

Chapter 2: JDK 21: New Features��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19


Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36

Chapter 3: Roadmap and Vision for Jakarta EE 11������������������������������������������������� 39


Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54

Chapter 4: Java Cryptography Architecture����������������������������������������������������������� 55


Architecture and Design Principles��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
JCA Classes and Algorithms������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
Algorithms and Engine Classes��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
Interfaces and Main Classes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
Data Encryption��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
Hash Functions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67

iii
Table of Contents

Signatures����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75

Chapter 5: Classical Cryptography������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77


Caesar Cipher������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 78
Implementation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
Cryptanalysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
Vigenère Cipher��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
Implementation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
Cryptanalysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Hill Cipher����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Implementation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
Cryptanalysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97

Chapter 6: Quantum Cryptography������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99


Key Concepts for Quantum Mechanics Used in Cryptography���������������������������������������������������� 99
Quantum Superposition��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99
Quantum Entanglement������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
Quantum Key Distribution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Security and Eavesdropping Detection�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Challenges��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109
BB84 Protocol��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109
Security Based on Quantum Principles������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Description of BB84 Protocol Simulation����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
Other Quantum Cryptography Algorithms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115

iv
Table of Contents

Chapter 7: Formal Techniques for Cryptography�������������������������������������������������� 117


Definitions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
Probabilities and Statistics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
Conditional Probability��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Random Variables���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Entropy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
A Little Algebra�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 122
Elliptic Curves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Test Suites�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 130
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 132

Chapter 8: Pseudorandom Number Generators���������������������������������������������������� 135


Examples of PRNGs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138
Linear Congruential PRNGs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138
Blum-Blum-Shub PRNG������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
Linear Circuit PRNGs����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
Other PRNGs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 141
PRNGs Security�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142
Java.util.Random Class������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142
Example of Using CSPRNGs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 146
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 148

Chapter 9: Hash Functions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 151


Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 160
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161

Chapter 10: Symmetric Encryption Algorithms���������������������������������������������������� 165


Data Encryption Standard��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
The Generation of Keys������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Encryption and Decryption Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 169
Operation Modes for DES���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 170

v
Table of Contents

Advanced Encryption Standard������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175


Encryption and Decryption Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
Operation Modes for AES����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182

Chapter 11: Asymmetric Encryption Schemes����������������������������������������������������� 183


RSA������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
ElGamal������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Merkle-Hellman������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 197
The Knapsack Approach������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 197
Algorithms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 197
Advancements in Asymmetric Cryptography���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199
Elliptic Curve Cryptography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199
Post-Quantum Cryptography����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201

Chapter 12: Advanced Encryption Schemes��������������������������������������������������������� 205


Homomorphic Encryption��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Searchable Encryption�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 210
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 212
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213

Chapter 13: Identification Schemes��������������������������������������������������������������������� 219


FFS Identification Protocol�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 231
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 232

Chapter 14: Signature Schemes��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 233


Implementations of Digital Signatures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235
Standards and Regulations of Digital Signatures��������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 243
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
vi
Table of Contents

Chapter 15: Lattice-Based Cryptography and NTRU��������������������������������������������� 247


Practical Implementation of the NTRU Library�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 250
Secure Application Development���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 266
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 267
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 267

Chapter 16: Cryptography Tools��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 269


CryptTool����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 269
OpenSSL����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 280
Integrating OpenSSL with Java������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 286
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 291

vii
About the Authors
Stefania Loredana Nita PhD, is a lecturer at “Ferdinand I”
Military Technical Academy of Bucharest and a software
developer and researcher at the Institute for Computers.
Her PhD thesis was on advanced cryptographic schemes
using searchable encryption and homomorphic encryption.
At the Military Technical Academy she teaches courses on
formal languages and translators and database application
development. She was also an assistant lecturer at the
University of Bucharest where she taught courses on subjects
such as advanced programming techniques, simulation methods, and operating
systems. Her research activity is in the cryptography field, with a focus on searchable
encryption and homomorphic encryption. She is also interested in blockchain,
quantum cryptography, machine learning, and artificial intelligence. At the Institute
for Computers she is working on research and development projects that involve cloud
computing security, the Internet of Things, and big data. She has authored and
co-authored more than 28 papers at conferences and in journals and has co-authored
five books. She holds an MSc degree in software engineering and two BSc degrees, with
one in computer science and one in mathematics.

Marius Iulian Mihailescu PhD, has worked in academic


and industry sectors for more than 15 years. Currently, he
is an associate professor (senior lecturer) in the Faculty
of Engineering and Computer Science at “Spiru Haret”
University, Romania, and also has a side job as project
manager at the Institute for Computers where he is
managing projects using different technologies, such as
DevOps, Scrum, Agile, C#, Microsoft SQL Server, Syncfusion,
ASP.NET, and VUE. At the university, he taught several
key computer science courses, about topics such as information security, functional
programming, Internet of Things, blockchain, software development methods (Microsoft

ix
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Azure, Entity Framework, NHibernate, Linq-to-SQL, UX with DevExpress controls, etc.),


and development web applications (HTML 5, CSS 3, Bootstrap, JavaScript, AJAX, nodeJS,
VUE, Laravel, mRabbit, ASP.NET, PHP). He authored and co-authored more than 30
articles at conference proceedings, 25 articles in journals, and six books. For three
years he worked as IT officer at Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd, where he dealt with IT
infrastructure, data security, and satellite communication systems. He received his PhD
in 2014 with a thesis on applied cryptography over biometrics data. He holds two MSc
degrees in information security and software engineering, from “Ferdinand I” Military
Technical Academy and University of Bucharest, Romania.

x
About the Technical Reviewer
Valentina Marascu is currently a lecturer in the Faculty
of Engineering and Computer Science at “Spiru Haret”
University, Romania, and a scientific researcher 3rd degree
in the Low Temperature Plasma Laboratory at the National
Institute for Laser, Plasma, and Radiation Physics (INFLPR)
in Magurele, Romania. Her educational background involves
mathematics, physics, and computer science, with proactive
engagement in scientific research and the academic
sector. Concerning the research sector, she is engaged in
scientific experimental physics research, in the frame of fusion and quantum national
and international project directions. She has significant scientific papers, which were
published in important ISI journals. Concerning the academic sector, her disciplines are
web applications development, functional programming, and computational methods in
natural sciences, and she is involved in researching and creating techniques to improve
cybersecurity measures, with a specific emphasis on analyzing user behavior to detect
and minimize potential risks. Complementary to her academic and scientific research
activities, her occupations include teacher for experimental physics laboratories,
internships, and training with undergraduates and graduate students; chair at various
scientific events; jury member at national and international conferences; member of the
organizational committee of international conferences; reviewer for different journals;
and guest editor, volunteer, and exhibitor participant at scientific events.

xi
CHAPTER 1

Getting Started
In the last decade, technology has rapidly evolved. Statistics show that 64.2 zettabytes
of data were generated in 2020 (1 zettabyte is equivalent to 1021 bytes or 1012 gigabytes),
and it is predicted that by 2025, the digital data generated will reach 181 zettabytes [1, 2].
Electronic communication has become an essential part of our lives, and due to its rapid
evolution, all manner of security issues has arisen. Because digital messages, in all of their
forms, are sent daily over public networks across the world, the need for secure channels
and security mechanisms has also increased. Digital devices and communications should
have digital signatures that make them easy to authenticate. Modern cryptography provides
solutions for all these requirements.
The era in which we are living is considered the “zettabytes era,” in which technology
allows humans and electronic devices to generate and send information instantly, at
any time and any place. Advanced technologies, such as the Internet of Things, fog
computing, edge computing, smart vehicles, drones, smart houses, and many other
complex software (desktop/web/mobile) solutions or architectures, are evolving so
quickly that it is difficult to keep up with security requirements. For example, at the time
of this book’s writing, there are 160,974 records of vulnerabilities registered on the CVE
platform [3]. However, lessons can be learned even from failures, so by analyzing such
vulnerabilities, security solutions can be improved.

Theoretical Cryptography vs. Applied Cryptography


Applied cryptography and theoretical cryptography are essential components of
the greater science of cryptography, each playing unique but interrelated functions.
Comprehending the distinctions between them helps provide an understanding of how
cryptographic systems are created, examined, and put into practice.

1
© Stefania Loredana Nita, Marius Iulian Mihailescu 2024
S. L. Nita and M. I. Mihailescu, Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/979-8-8688-0441-0_1
Chapter 1 Getting Started

Theoretical Cryptography
Theoretical cryptography is a branch of cryptography that focuses on the fundamental
principles, mathematical theories, and abstract models underlying cryptographic
algorithms and protocols. It is concerned with the rigorous analysis and design of
cryptographic systems, aiming to establish their security based on well-defined
assumptions and formal proofs. The following are key aspects of theoretical
cryptography:

• Mathematical foundations. Theoretical cryptography heavily


relies on advanced mathematics, including number theory, algebra,
probability theory, and complexity theory. These mathematical tools
are used to create and analyze cryptographic algorithms.

• Security proofs. A crucial part of theoretical cryptography is the


development of proofs that demonstrate the security of cryptographic
systems under certain assumptions. These proofs are meant to be
rigorous and provide a high level of confidence in the security of the
systems.

• Algorithm design. The design of cryptographic algorithms in


theoretical cryptography is not just about creating methods for
encryption and decryption but also about ensuring these methods
can withstand various types of theoretical attacks. This involves
designing algorithms that are computationally hard to break without
the proper keys or information.

• Cryptographic protocols. Beyond individual algorithms, theoretical


cryptography also deals with the creation and analysis of protocols
for secure communication and data handling. This includes key
exchange protocols, authentication protocols, and more.

• Computational hardness assumptions. The security of


cryptographic systems in theoretical cryptography often relies on
computational hardness assumptions. These are assumptions about
the difficulty of solving certain mathematical problems (like factoring
large numbers or computing discrete logarithms) within a reasonable
amount of time.

2
Chapter 1 Getting Started

• Abstract models. Theoretical cryptography uses abstract models to


represent and analyze cryptographic systems. These models simplify
the real world into a set of assumptions and rules that make analysis
manageable while still being relevant to real-world scenarios.

• Innovative research. Theoretical cryptography is at the forefront of


developing new cryptographic concepts and techniques. It explores
the boundaries of what is possible in secure communications and
data protection, often paving the way for future practical applications.

Theoretical cryptography involves the creation of novel cryptographic ideas


and methods. The focus is on progressing the field rather than on quick practical
implementation. Theoretical cryptography establishes the foundation for
comprehending cryptographic security principles, whereas applied cryptography
implements these principles to develop secure and operational systems in practical
scenarios. Both are essential for the progress and real-world implementation of
cryptographic systems.

Applied Cryptography
Applied cryptography is a field that deals with the practical implementation and
utilization of cryptographic methods in real-world scenarios. It entails utilizing the ideas
and theories of theoretical cryptography to design secure communication systems, data
protection mechanisms, and other security solutions. Essential components of applied
cryptography consist of the following:

• Implementing cryptographic algorithms. This process entails


converting cryptographic algorithms from theoretical concepts into
functional code. Applied cryptography focuses on effectively and
securely implementing these methods in software and hardware.

• System integration. Applied cryptography focuses on the integration


of cryptographic techniques into complex systems. This involves
comprehending the integration of encryption inside network
protocols, software applications, and hardware devices.
Applied cryptography must address real-world limits such as processing power,
memory constraints, and usability issues, unlike theoretical encryption that functions in
an idealized setting.
3
Chapter 1 Getting Started

Applied cryptography focuses on assuring the security of


cryptographic systems against real assaults, rather than only
theoretical ones. This involves factors such as side-
channel assaults, in which attackers can extract information from
the physical execution of a cryptographic system.

Applied cryptography frequently necessitates conformity


to industry norms and governmental mandates about
standardization and compliance. This guarantees compatibility
among systems and adherence to legislative mandates on data
protection and privacy.

Applied cryptography designs and enforces protocols customized


for particular uses, like secure web browsing (TLS/SSL), secure
email (PGP, S/MIME), and secure financial transactions.

• User interface and experience. It encompasses creating systems


that prioritize both security and user-friendliness. Users should be
able to utilize cryptographic systems proficiently without needing
extensive understanding of the underlying cryptography.

• Update and maintenance. Applied cryptography is the continuous


process of upgrading and maintaining cryptographic systems.
With the discovery of new weaknesses and the advancement of
computational power, it is essential to upgrade cryptographic
algorithms and implementations to ensure security.

Applied cryptography involves implementing the theoretical principles of


cryptography in practical scenarios. It connects the theoretical aspects of cryptography
with the actual requirements of individuals and organizations to protect their data and
communications.
Applied cryptography is essential in the contemporary digital realm for various
reasons. They can be summarized as follows:

• Data security. Cryptography is crucial for ensuring data security,


particularly for protecting sensitive information such as bank records,
personal details, and confidential communications. Encryption
safeguards data by restricting access to authorized users, preventing
unauthorized access or theft.

4
Chapter 1 Getting Started

• Privacy. Privacy is crucial in a time where personal data is


consistently gathered and analyzed, with encryption playing a vital
role in safeguarding it. It enables secure communication and storage
of information, free from interception or misuse.

• E-commerce and online transactions. Cryptography ensures


secure online transactions, which are essential for e-commerce. It
guarantees the secure transmission of financial information such
as credit card data and authenticates transactions, fostering trust in
online commerce.

• Authentication and identity verification. Cryptography is


utilized for authentication and identity verification to confirm
the identification of users and devices, allowing only authorized
individuals to access certain services or information. It is essential to
avoid identity theft and unwanted access.

• Integrity of information. Cryptographic techniques are utilized to


maintain the integrity of information by preventing any unauthorized
alterations or tampering during transmission or storage. It is crucial
for upholding trust in digital communications and records.

• National security and defense. Cryptography is essential for


securing government and defense communications for national
security and defense purposes. Ensuring secure communication
channels is crucial for national security to safeguard sensitive
information from possible attackers.

• Internet and network security. Cryptography is fundamental to


Internet and network security. It secures data during transmission
across the Internet and other networks, defending against cyber risks
such as hacking and eavesdropping.

• Digital signatures and nonrepudiation. Digital signatures use


cryptography to verify the source of a digital message or document,
preventing the sender from denying sending it (nonrepudiation).
This is crucial in legal and corporate settings.

5
Chapter 1 Getting Started

• Practical implementation. Applied cryptography involves


implementing cryptographic algorithms and protocols in real-
world systems. It entails utilizing theoretical principles to create
practical cryptography solutions. Integration with systems involves
incorporating cryptographic approaches into software and hardware
systems, taking into account factors such as performance, usability,
and compatibility.

Applied cryptography considers practical constraints and difficulties in creating


cryptographic systems, including processing resources, user interface design, and
resistance to side-channel attacks. Ensuring that cryptographic implementations adhere
to standards and laws is vital for interoperability and legal compliance.
Practical security involves implementing and operating secure systems in real-world
situations, considering unexpected weaknesses and practical limitations, in contrast to
the theoretical foundation provided by cryptography.
One of the most important aspects considered when complex systems are designed
and implemented is knowledge. In antiquity, the Latin saying Scientia potentia est means
“Knowledge is power” [4]. In the 21st century, this is even more true; information falling
into the wrong hands can lead to huge business losses and catastrophic outcomes.
Cryptography and information security provide security mechanisms that can protect
information shared between senders and recipients over insecure channels so that
unauthorized users cannot access or alter the transmitted information. Over time, there
were encryption systems that were broken by attackers by exploiting vulnerabilities of
the systems.
The word cryptography comes from the Greek words kryptos and graphein, meaning
“hidden” and “writing,” respectively. As its name suggests, the purpose of cryptography
is to hide messages from unauthorized individuals and to keep their integrity. Although
the study of cryptography has been around only about 100 years, it was used in different
forms from ancient times. However, over time there have been various primary methods
of hiding secret messages, starting with hieroglyphs, continuing with Caesar’s famous
cipher, and followed by the Vigenère cipher, Hebern’s rotor machine, and the famous
Enigma machine. Nevertheless, hiding messages was not the only occupation close
to cryptography or, rather, information security. Another example is authentication or
identity verification; this was often done through seals.

6
Chapter 1 Getting Started

Cryptography is considered an art, especially in its primary phases. The history of


cryptography began in ancient Egypt, alongside the art of writing, during a time when
humans started organizing in different social groups. This organization led to a natural
need to transmit information only to certain individuals, with the same group, tribe,
etc. Early forms of cryptography were hieroglyphs, which started to be used about 4,000
ago by Egyptians—only they recognized the symbols and their meaning. An inscription
carved circa 1900 BC contains the first known evidence of cryptography (in some kind).
It is located in Egypt nobleman Khnumhotep II’s tomb, in the main chamber [5]. In this
inscription, some symbols have a different form than usual, and the scribe’s intent was
not necessary to hide a message; rather, he wanted the symbols to look nobler than usual
according to the social status of the deceased. Although the inscription does not hide
a message, it contains an altered/transformed form of the original symbols, being the
oldest proof of such an approach.
Then, cryptography in the ancient world moved to a substitution approach, in
which every symbol of an alphabet was replaced by another symbol based on a secret
rule. This happened around 500–600 BC. The next notable cipher was Caesar’s cipher.
Caesar was a Roman emperor who was communicating with his army generals with
encoded messages, using a substitution within the Roman alphabet. Each letter was
shifted a certain number of positions in the alphabet, usually three. For example, the
correspondent of A was D, of B was E, and so on. This is an important historical cipher
that is mentioned often in cryptography literature.
The next important achievement in cryptography was in the Middle Ages by
Leon Battista Alberti, who implemented polyalphabetic substitution. Two rotating
copper disks were used that had the alphabet inscribed on them. Different variations
of polyalphabetic substitution ciphers were used, but the most known such cipher is
Vigenère.
Then in the 19th century, the encryption methods evolved and became more
technical. The beginning of modern cryptography starts mainly with the Enigma
machine, although the rotors were used a few years before Enigma’s invention.
Considered unbreakable, the Enigma machine was invented by German engineer Arthur
Scherbius at the end of World War I, but it was extensively used in World War II by the
German army. Enigma is based on more rotors that work electromechanically, and
it scrambles the letters of the alphabet. During World War II, cryptography alongside
cryptanalysis evolved quickly and became mathematized. Then modern cryptography
continued with symmetric encryption (using a private key for both encryption and

7
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