Principles of Stratigraphy (ES301)
Dr. Hiranya Sahoo
Assistant Professor
Dept of Earthsciences,
Office: Room No 310, ESB-3
Email:
[email protected] Basin depositional record (Stratigraphy)
Ganga Basin (Modern)
Modern Basins
Indian Basins (Ancient)
Indian Basins
(Ancient)
Steno’s Principles
• Principle of Superposition
– Oldest strata are at the
bottom in an undisturbed
sequence of strata
• Principle of Original
Horizontality
– All strata are horizontal when
they form
• Principle of Original Lateral
Continuity
– Strata originally are unbroken
flat expanses
– Interrupted by erosion
5
Post-depositional
Cross-cutting Relationships
• Principle of Intrusive
Relationships
– Intrusive igneous rocks
are always younger than
the rock they invade
What is Stratigraphy
• The study of large-scale vertical and lateral relationships between
layers of sedimentary rock (strata or beds).
• Characterized on the basis of:
– lithological or physical properties (rock type).
– paleontological characteristics (fossils).
– Geologic age.
– geographic position and distribution.
Grand
Canyon
Stratigraphy,
USA
Guideline to establish a stratigraphy
• International guide:
– International Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classification of IUGS
– The “Bible” of stratigraphic classification
Printed guide: Salvador, A. (Editor),
1994; Geological Society of
Online guide: http://www.stratigraphy.org/ America, Boulder, 214 pp
Guideline to establish a stratigraphy
• North American Stratigraphic Code:
– North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature
(NACSN)
– Latest version published in 2005, AAPG Bulletin, v. 89, pp. 1547–
1591
– Available at: ngmdb.usgs.gov/Info/NACSN/05_1547.pdf
Stratigraphic record of basins
One VS. Many? How
Multiple basins
• Identical rock and
fossils (flora and
fauna) .
Stratigraphic
tools for
correlation
Types of stratigraphy: How many ?
• There exists a number of way to differentiate one
stratigraphic unit from another, thus various types of
stratigraphy (both formal and informal):
– Lithostratigraphy
– Allostratigraphy
– Sequence Stratigraphy
– Biostratigraphy
– Magnetostratigraphy
– Morphostratigraphy
– Chemostratigraphy
– Chronostratigraphy
– Cyclostratigraphy
– Pedostratigraphy
– Event Stratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy
What is Lithostratigraphy
• NACSN definition:
– A lithostratigraphic unit is a
stratum or body of strata,
generally but not invariably
layered, generally but not
invariably tabular, that
conforms to the Law of
Superposition and is
distinguished and delimited
on the basis of lithic
characteristics and
stratigraphic position.
Example, Navajo Sandstone.
• If you are in a frontier basin
and have to develop a
stratigraphic scheme
spanning a large geologic
time:
– Better to start with
lithostratgraphy
– Later, you can refine this
with allostratigraphy or
sequence stratigraphy.
Grand Canyon Lithostratigraphy, USA
Uses of Lithostratigraphy
• What lithostratigraphy CAN DO for you
– Place unit in geologic framework.
– Establish stratigraphic relationship with units above and
below.
– Aid in correlation between other LITHOLOGIC units.
• What it can NOT do for you
– Denote time.
Lithostratigraphic Units
• Includes sedimentary, extrusive igneous, meta-sedimentary, meta-
volcanic rocks.
• Generally conforms to law of superposition
• Emphasizes mappability.
– Concept defined prior to availability of extensive subsurface data (e.g.
seismic, well log, core)
• Identification is based on observable (mostly in field) rock
characteristics:
– fossil content and age DO NOT play a direct role.
• Mode of deposition (genesis) is NOT a criterion in the distinction of
lithostratigraphic units
– this requires interpretation and is therefore likely to undergo revision over
time.
• Boundaries can be either sharp and clear, or gradational.
Lithostratigraphic Units
• Fundamental unit
– Formation
• Lithologically distinctive
stratigraphic unit that is
large enough in scale to be
mappable at the surface or
traceable in the subsurface.
• Mappable Units
– mapped at the regional to
sub-regional scale, 1:50,000
Lithostratigraphic Rank
Lithostratigraphic Units
• Other formal lithostratigraphic units
– Smaller than a formation
• Member
– Subdivision of a formation
• Bed
– Subdivision of a member
– Smallest formal lithostratigraphic unit
• Larger than a formation
– Group
Lithostratigraphic
• Two or more adjacent formations that have Rank
some unifying lithological and/ or genetic
features
– Supergroup
• Groups of groups
• e.g., Newark Supergroup
Naming of Lithostratigraphic Units
• Formations have a formal two-part name, reflecting
location, and rank (or lithology):
– Type locality (for 1st part name): geographic region, canyon,
creek, etc., where the formation is well exposed.
– Rank designation (for 2nd part name): e.g., Group,
Formation. Like, Blackhawk Formation, Wilcox Group.
• Many older stratigraphic units use a lithologic (dominant rock
type) term (instead of a rank term), if the formation is mostly
lithologically homogeneous. Like, Kaibab Limestone, Austin
Chalk.
• However, this is NOT recommended as the rank of the unit is
not clear from the name alone (NACSN, 2005).
Contacts / Boundaries
• Plane or irregular surfaces (or zones) between
different types of rocks.
• Time connotation:
– Conformable contact
– Unconformable contact
• Physical connotation:
– Strata show a variety of vertical and lateral contacts.
• Abrupt and distinct:
– Sharp contact.
– Unconformity.
– You can put your finger!
• Gradational and indistinct:
– Contact is not a surface but a zone
– Smooth or stepped transitions
Contacts / Boundaries
• Gradational
vertical
contact:
– Smooth (A)
versus stepped
(B) vertical
transitions.
– Where do you
pick the
formation
contact?
Contacts / Boundaries
• Gradational
vertical
contact:
Ferron
– Where do you sandstone
pick the
formation
contact?
Tununk
Shale
Contacts / Boundaries
• Gradational lateral
contact:
– Smooth transition (A)
– Stepped transition (B).
• Pinch-outs
• Inter-tonguing
A
Contacts / Boundaries
• Abrupt and distinct:
– Sharp boundaries.
– You can put your finger (where?)
Sharp contact mark base of fluvial channels over floodplain
mudstones, Jurassic Morrison Fm., Utah, USA
Contacts / Boundaries
• Abrupt and
distinct:
– Unconformities
• Angular
Unconformity
• Disconformity
• Paraconformity
• Nonconformity
Contacts / Boundaries
• Unconformity? and Type?:
Unconformity with Tertiary rocks overlying Cretaceous Indianola
sandstones and conglomerates, Salina Utah, USA
Contacts / Boundaries
• Conformity
– bedding surface with no stratigraphic break.
• Hiatus
– a break in the geologic record (the hiatus refers to the break in
time).
• Unconformity
– a surface of erosion or non-deposition that separates older from
younger rocks and that indicates a significant hiatus.
• Angular Unconformity
• Disconformity
• Paraconformity
• Nonconformity.
