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Globalizing Civic Engagement
Globalizing Civic Engagement

Civil Society and

Transnational Action

Edited by
John D Clark

Earthscan Publications Ltd

London • Sterling, VA
First published in the UK and USA in 2003 by
Earthscan Publications Ltd

Copyright © Centre for Civil Society

All rights reserved

ISBN: 1-85383-989-2 (paperback)

1-85383-988-4 (hardback)

Typesetting by Denis Dalinnik, Minsk, Belarus

Printed and bound by
Cover design by Danny Gillespie

For a full list of publications please contact:

Earthscan Publications Ltd

120 Pentonville Road
London, N1 9JN, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7278 0433
Fax: +44 (0)20 7278 1142
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.earthscan.co.uk

22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling, VA 20166–2012, USA

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Globalizing civic engagement : civil society and transnational action / edited by John D.
Clark.- 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-85383-989-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) - ISBN 1-85383-988-4 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Social movements-International cooperation. 2. Protest movements-International
cooperation. I. Clark, John, 1950-

HM881.G559 2003
303.48'4-dc21
2003007492

Earthscan is an editorially independent subsidiary of Kogan Page Ltd and publishes in associ-
ation with WWF-UK and the International Institute for Environment and Development

This book is printed on elemental chlorine-free paper

 Contents

List of Tables, Figures and Boxes vi

Preface vii
List of Contributors ix
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xi

1 Introduction: Civil Society and Transnational Action John Clark 1

2 Consumers Unite Internationally Tasneem Mowjee 29

3 Trade Unions in a Changing World: Challenges and Opportunities

of Transnationalization Diego Muro and Nuno Themudo 45

4 Campaign to Increase Access to HIV/AIDS Drugs Tasneem Mowjee 66

5 Jubilee 2000: Laying the Foundations for a Social Movement

Paola Grenier 86

6 The Age of Protest: Internet-Based ‘Dot Causes’ and

the ‘Anti-Globalization’ Movement John Clark and Nuno Themudo 109

7 World Social Forum: Making Another World Possible?

Günther Schönleitner 127

8 Campaign for a ‘Robin Hood Tax’ for Foreign Exchange Markets

Diego Muro 150

9 Conclusions: Globalizing Civic Engagement John Clark 164

References and Interviews 176

Index 188
 List of Tables, Figures and Boxes

TABLES
1.1 Characteristics of different transnational civil society forms 5
2.1 Key dates in the development of IOCU/Consumers International 35
5.1 Evolving status of Jubilee 2000 groups 103
7.1 Numbers participating in World Social Forums 129
7.2 Regional distribution of participation in World Social Forums 136
7.3 Types of participant organizations in WSF 2001 138

FIGURES
1.1 The organizational forms of selected CSOs and CSO networks 7
3.1 UK trade union membership as a percentage of total work force
(1985–1999) 46
3.2 Strike action in the UK (1965–1999) 47
5.1 Jubilee 2000 – evolution timeline 87
5.2 Points of influence of Jubilee 2000 106

BOXES
1.1 Chronology of major inter-faith initiatives 14
1.2 The Philippines code of NGO ethics 18
1.3 Amnesty International and its mandate dilemma 21
3.1 The international union movement 49
3.2 First International: workers of the world unite! 50
 Preface

Much has been written about how the era of globalization is impacting on the
worlds of business, economics and politics. Many in civil society have sought to
challenge or reform the management of global change, and a variety of social
movements and campaigns has come together to form a global protest movement
that is storming the institutions and principles of global governance. But little has
been written about how the technological and political opportunities of globaliza-
tion affect civil society itself – hence the motivation for this book.
It is clear that a wide array of civil society organizations – ranging from environ-
mental pressure groups and development charities to trade unions and churches –
are increasingly emphasizing international advocacy work and networking with
others. The benefits and the opportunities are clear; but there are many obstacles,
challenges and dilemmas along the path. In particular, there are issues of organiza-
tional structure and governance that crop up frequently, and challenges regarding
the culture and focus of networks as their memberships diversify. Moreover, new
communications technology is allowing new ways of working and new organiza-
tional forms to arise – in particular, the web-based campaigns (or ‘dot causes’).
Just as the ‘network age’ is transforming management theory in the private sector,
so, too, it creates imperatives in civil society to work in different ways and with
non-traditional partnerships.
This book surveys these issues. It is the result of a research project of the
Centre for Civil Society at the London School of Economics and Political Science
(LSE). The project started with a review of the issues through discussion with
leaders of a wide range of civil society organizations and consultation of the liter-
ature (published and internal) on those organizations’ strategic thinking. We next
held an international seminar at LSE bringing together practitioners from different
types of organization – North and South – and academics studying civil society.
This provided new insights, as well as better ideas as to where knowledge gaps lie.
Chapter 1 covers this preparatory stage. We then undertook a series of case studies,
investigating the experience of a number of transnational civil society endeavours
(Chapters 2 to 8). These studies used the same approach as the initial review and
probed the issues that it had brought to the surface. The final chapter summarizes
the projects’ main findings and offers some conclusions that are intended to be
of use to civil society practitioners, policy-makers and academics.
This project has been made possible by a generous grant from the Ford
Foundation, to whom go our sincere thanks. We also thank Helmut Anheier,
David Lewis, Lisa Carlson, Jane Schiemann and other staff at the Centre for
viii Globalizing Civic Engagement

Civil Society for their help and valuable suggestions, and we thank LSE itself for
being an accommodating host for this project. Thanks, also, go to many practi-
tioners and scholars who have contributed their valuable ideas and experience,
especially: Dave Brown, Ernst Ligteringen, Julie Fisher, John Foster, Petr Hlobil,
Lisa Jordan, Richard Langhorne, Alan Leather, Jan Aart Scholte, Salil Shetty,
David Stark, Rajesh Tandon, Sid Tarrow, Aurelio Vianna and Dennis Young. We
would also like to thank the participants at the LSE seminar of June 2001 for
their treasure chest of ideas, which we have ruthlessly plundered, and the many
people who generously gave their time to be interviewed or to give advice.
Finally, we would like to thank Jonathan Sinclair Wilson and his colleagues at
Earthscan – both for having faith in this project and for being flexible with slip-
ping deadlines for delivery of the final manuscript.

John Clark (editor), on behalf of all the contributors

Visiting Fellow, London School of Economics
March 2003
 List of Contributors

John Clark is currently Project Director for the High-Level Panel on United
Nations–Civil Society Relations, established by the secretary-general and chaired
by Fernando Henrique Cardoso (former president of Brazil). He worked for the
World Bank from 1992 to 2000 as manager of the NGO and Civil Society Unit
and lead social development specialist for East Asia. He then moved to the UK,
where he has served on a task force advising the UK prime minister on Africa and
wrote a book on globalization, Worlds Apart: Civil Society and the Battle for Ethical
Globalization (Earthscan, UK, and Kumarian, US, 2003). He was also visiting
fellow at the Centre for Civil Society, London School of Economics and Political
Science (LSE), where he manages the research project on which this book is
based. Prior to joining the World Bank he worked in non-governmental organi-
zations (NGOs) for 18 years, mostly in Oxfam GB. He is the author of three
other books, including Democratizing Development: The Role of Voluntary Agencies
(Earthscan, UK, and Kumarian, US, 1991).

Paola Grenier is a Lord Dahrendorf scholar in the Centre for Civil Society, LSE,
researching social entrepreneurship in the UK. Prior to that she worked in Hun-
gary for two years on supporting the development of Roma communities, and
organizing the first European-wide conference on homelessness. Her background
in the UK voluntary sector is within the fields of homelessness, social housing and
regeneration, where she has been involved in management, fund raising, research
and policy development. Her research interests include leadership in voluntary
organizations and NGOs, organizational development, social entrepreneurship
and social capital.

Tasneem Mowjee has worked for WomenAid International, a small UK NGO

specializing in humanitarian assistance to the former Yugoslavia and the Caucasus.
This led to a PhD on NGO–Donor Funding Relationships: UK Government and
European Community Funding for the Humanitarian Aid Activities of UK NGOs
from 1990–1997 at the Centre for Civil Society, LSE. Since completing the PhD,
she has been working as a freelance researcher, mainly on humanitarian-aid fund-
ing issues and the European Commission’s humanitarian policy.

Diego Muro is currently editor of the journal Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism
and is a doctoral student in the Department of Government, LSE. His research
focuses on civil society, nationalism and political violence.
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x Globalizing Civic Engagement

Günther Schönleitner is a PhD student and Lord Dahrendorf scholar at the Centre
for Civil Society, LSE, researching civil society participation and local governance
in Brazil. He holds a first degree in law from the University of Salzburg (Austria)
and an MSc in development studies from the LSE. Prior to his doctoral studies,
he worked for eight years with an Austrian development NGO, first as a project
officer in Brazil and later as a country programme manager based in Vienna.

Nuno Themudo is part-time lecturer at the Centre for Civil Society, LSE, where
he teaches on the Masters course NGO Management, Policy and Administration.
He is completing his PhD thesis titled Managing the Paradox: NGOs, Resource
Dependence and Political Independence. His research interests include NGO and
non-profit management, information and communications technology and civil
society, and sustainable development.
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ABONG Brazilian Association of Non-Governmental Organizations

ACTSA Action for Southern Africa (UK)
AGM annual general meeting
AI Amnesty International
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome
ALOP Latin American Association of Popular Organizations
ALP AIDS Law Project (South Africa)
ANC African National Congress
ARV antiretroviral (treatment for HIV/AIDS)
ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations
ATTAC (-I)
Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions for the Aid
of Citizens (-International)
BC Brazilian Council (World Social Forum)
CA Consumers Association (UK)
CAP Consumers Association of Penang
CBJP Brazilian Commission for Justice and Peace
CEE Central and Eastern Europe
CEO chief executive officer
CETIM Centre Europe–Tiers Monde
CI Consumers’ International
CIVES Brazilian Association of Entrepreneurs for Citizenship
CIVICUS World Alliance for Citizen Participation
CJG Centre for Global Justice (Brazil)
CNBB National Conference of the Bishops of Brazil
CODE-NGO Caucus of Development NGOs (The Philippines)
COICA Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon
Basin
COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions
CPT Consumer Project on Technology (US)
CS civil society
CSO civil society organization
CSR corporate social responsibility
CU Consumers Union (US)
CUT Central Única dos Trabalhadores (Brazilian Union Federation)
CUTS Consumer Unity and Trust Society (India)
DCN Debt Crisis Network
xii Globalizing Civic Engagement

DISHA Development Initiative for Social and Humanitarian Action

EC Executive Committee (World Social Forum)
EMH efficient markets hypothesis
EPZ export processing zone
ETA Basque separatist movement
ETUC European Trade Union Confederation
EU European Union
EURODAD European Network on Debt and Development
EZLN Ejercito Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (Zapatistas National Lib-
eration Army, Mexico)
FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionárias de Colombia
FOE, FOE-I Friends of the Earth, FOE-International
FPA Fundação Perseu Abramo
FSM Fórum Social Mundial (World Social Forum)
FTAA Free Trade Area of the Americas
G7, G8 the group of the seven largest economies (G8 = plus Russia)
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP gross domestic product
GMO genetically modified organism
GSK GlaxoSmithKline
GUF Global Union Federation
HAI Health Action International
HIPC Heavily Indebted Poorer Countries Initiative (IMF/World Bank
debt-relief programme for poor countries)
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HRW Human Rights Watch
IBASE Brazilian Institute of Social and Economic Analysis
IBFAN International Baby Foods Action Network
IC International Council (World Social Forum)
ICBL International Campaign to Ban Landmines
ICEM International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General
Workers’ Unions
ICFTU International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
ICM International Council Meeting
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICRT International Consumer Research and Testing
ICT information and communications technology
IFBWW International Federation of Building and Wood Workers
IFI international financial institution
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
INGO international NGO
IOCU International Organization of Consumers Unions (precursor of CI)
IP intellectual property
 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii

IRA Irish Republican Army

ISO International Standards Organization
ISTR International Society for Third Sector Research
ITS International Trade Secretariat (precursor of GUF)
JDC Jubilee Debt Campaign
JMI Jubilee Movement International
LSE London School of Economics and Political Science
MC Mobilization Committee (World Social Forum)
MCC Medicines Control Programme (South Africa)
MEP Member of the European Parliament
MG Minas Gerais (Brazil)
MR Millennium Review (ICFTU)
MSF Médecins Sans Frontières
MST Brazilian Landless Peasants Movement
NAFTA North American Free Trade Association
NGO non-governmental organization
NOP-FPA Núcleo de Opinião Pública – Fundação Perseu Abramo (Brazil)
OC Organizing Committee (World Social Forum)
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OI Oxfam International
PAIC programme of support for community initiatives
PGA People’s Global Action
PMA Pharmaceutical Manufacturers’ Association (South Africa)
PRIA Society for Participatory Research in Asia
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
PSI Public Service International
PT Partido dos Trabalhadores (Brazilian Workers’ Party)
R&D research and development
ROAP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (CI)
SAP structural adjustment programme
SM social movement
TAC Treatment Action Campaign (South Africa)
TCSN transnational civil society network
TNAN transnational advocacy network
TNC transnational corporation
TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights agreement
TSM transnational social movement
TU trade union
TUAC Trade Union Advisory Committee (OECD)
TWN Third World Network
UERJ University of the State of Rio de Janeiro
UFMG Federal University of Minas Gerais (Brazil)
UFRGS Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (Federal University
of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil)
UMWA United Mine Workers of America
xiv Globalizing Civic Engagement

UN United Nations
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNCHR United Nations Commission on Human Rights
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UN-GA United Nations General Assembly
UNHCHR United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
UNI Union Network International
USP University of São Paulo
USTR US Trade Representative
VSO Voluntary Service Overseas
WCC World Council of Churches
WCL World Confederation of Labour
WDM World Development Movement (UK)
WEF World Economic Forum
WFTU World Federation of Trade Unions
WHO World Health Organization
WSF World Social Forum
WTO World Trade Organization
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
 Chapter 1

Introduction: Civil Society and

Transnational Action

John Clark

Recent years have seen a strong and accelerating trend towards working more
actively across national frontiers within many segments of civil society. This shift
is particularly evident amongst civil society organizations (CSOs), who seek to
influence policies and practices of governments and international organizations.
The trend is due partly to need and partly to opportunity. Policies are increas-
ingly forged at supranational levels, either within inter-governmental bodies –
such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) or the World Bank – or in regional blocs, such as the North American Free
Trade Association (NAFTA), the European Union (EU) or the Association of
South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN). Moreover, transnational corporations (TNCs)
have become increasingly able to dictate policy and shape our world. Hence the
pre-eminence of the nation state as the locus of policy-making has lessened. To
influence policy it is now necessary, rather than merely prudent, to act at those
international levels and coordinate advocacy across relevant countries. Modern
information and communications technology (ICT), cheap telecommunications
and air travel and the increased prominence of English as the lingua franca of
international communications provide the opportunities for transnational civil
society action.
Policy-influencing CSOs comprise development and human rights non-gov-
ernmental organizations (NGOs), environment and other pressure groups, trade
unions, consumers’ organizations, faith-based and inter-faith groups and certain
professional associations. As with the private sector, each segment has seen the
emergence of ‘market leaders’, and these are generally CSOs that are either better
placed for, or have more energetically pursued, transnational networking. These
CSOs not only achieve greater credibility amongst policy-makers, but also
2 Globalizing Civic Engagement

apparently gain advantage over their competitors amongst potential supporters.

If we view civil society as a market-place of interests, ideas and ideologies, then it
is a fast-globalizing market and – as with other markets – transnational pioneers
reap the rewards.
Though there is evidence of decreasing associational activity amongst the
US public (Putnam, 2000), much of the world has witnessed an ‘associational
revolution’ over the past 20 years (Salamon, 1994), and a vibrant civil society
has emerged in many developing and transition countries where local political
realities previously denied this. Although still highly heterogeneous, there is now
more global uniformity in the distribution and composition of CSOs, though
not yet in their membership, resources and impact. This also drives the move
towards international networking.
This shift beyond a national focus to a transnational focus necessitates major
changes in the structure and governance of CSOs and is influencing both their
mandates and cultures. This chapter provides a review of these issues as they
affect a range of transnational civil society actors. It is based on interviews with
key stakeholders in major and illustrative CSOs and networks,1 a review of their
internal literature, conclusions of the London School of Economics and Political
Science (LSE) seminar and the case studies in following chapters. It looks, firstly,
at the various organizational arrangements that are used for transnational net-
working; secondly, it summarizes the key governance challenges – issues of rep-
resentation, legitimacy, accountability, leadership, decision-making and use of
name; thirdly, it surveys changes in focus, mandate and culture as CSOs increas-
ingly work transnationally; fourthly, it asks how this trend impacts questions of
membership and partnership, including the more regular tensions surfacing in
North–South partnerships. Finally, it offers some general conclusions, which
were also highlighted by the LSE seminar.
Various commentators have described how wide arrays of policy-oriented
CSOs are increasingly seeking to operate in transnational alliances with counter-
parts or like-minded civic groups in other countries (Keck and Sikkink, 1998;
Florini, 2000; Clark, 1999). This entails major challenges for CSOs. Amongst
diverse CSO networks,2 a remarkably similar spectrum of problems is encountered
and a new literature is beginning to address such issues (see Lindenberg and Bryant,
2001, on development NGOs).
There are interesting parallels with the private sector. Many CSOs (such as
consumers’ associations or development NGOs) are evolving from hierarchic or
unitary structures, where the identity of the CSO at national level is paramount,
towards network modes in which topic specialists from different countries collabo-
rate in opportunistic alliances with counterparts in other countries. The literature
on civil society and conventional organizational theory regarding NGO manage-
ment and behaviour offers little insight into these matters, though this is starting
to change (Anheier et al, 2001; Anheier and Themudo, 2002).3
The internet has enabled citizens to network with one another internation-
ally without the need for CSO intermediaries (at least those who can afford the
technology). As a result, a variety of web-mediated advocacy and protest cells
 Introduction: Civil Society and Transnational Action 3

(‘virtual CSOs’) have arisen – we nickname these ‘dot causes’ – ranging from the
Nobel prize-winning International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) to a
smorgasbord of protest groups (see Chapter 6).
Another feature of CSO dynamics in today’s fast-changing world is the
growing tendency to work with non-traditional partners in other segments of civil
society. NGOs, trade unions, faith groups, professional associations, think tanks
and social movements increasingly cooperate with one another. Oxfam Interna-
tional (2000), for example, is committed to working with others and learning from
the achievements of other movements to foster the notion of ‘global citizenship’
and global economic and social justice. Similarly, trade unions (TUs) increasingly
collaborate with human rights, environment and other NGOs in campaigns tar-
geting multinational companies or global industry umbrellas. Until recently, they
had tended to disdain NGO partnerships. And religious organizations increasingly
seek collaboration with those of other faiths.
Unions comprise the CSO category for which working transnationally is
most need-driven, since globalization is radically changing their environment
(see Chapter 3). The Millennium Review of the International Confederation of
Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), underway at present, seeks to modernize and inter-
nationalize the union movement – in particular, by overhauling the international
architecture of trade union networks and federations. Due to be completed by
2004, it seeks to identify TU priorities, structures and strategies to ‘increase the
strength of the trade union movement as an international campaigning and nego-
tiating force’, and to influence the structures and policies of inter-governmental
organizations (ICFTU, 2000 and 2001).
A relatively new and increasingly powerful force is that of transnational net-
works led by Southern or transition-country organizations such as Social Watch,
Third World Network and the recent campaign (led by the Treatment Action
Campaign (TAC) of South Africa) to press for cheaper generic drugs for poor
countries (Chapter 4).4 Some Southern or transition-country organization leaders,
however, are frustrated that progress is slow because Northern CSOs are reluctant
to hand over the reins (Chiriboga, 2001).

ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS
Transnational networking necessitates structures that facilitate CSOs in different
countries working together; there are many organizational forms that can be chosen
for this. They are influenced by the legal traditions of the country where the CSO
or network is registered and by national laws applying to members or branches.
The spread of ‘civil law’ practices (such as US models for non-profit organizations
across Central and Eastern Europe) and the promotion by donors of more
enabling laws governing civil society is, however, leading to greater uniformity.
Three broad forms define the spectrum, each of which can be subdivided:
4 Globalizing Civic Engagement

• International CSOs: single, coherent organizations; major decisions are

reached globally by international boards; policies are implemented by global
secretariats or head offices; there is a global hierarchy of staff accountability.
Within this form there is considerable variation, depending upon the degree
of autonomy vested in the national branches or sections. It includes:
– Unitary structures: the equivalent of TNCs, these are CSOs with global
decision-making processes (albeit with some devolution). Examples
include the Catholic Church, Human Rights Watch (HRW) and Plan
International.
– Centralized associations: these provide greater national autonomy; but
major decisions are made by global headquarters, which also control the
use of name and standards. Examples include Greenpeace and CARE.
– Federations: global boards (representing the member CSOs) make global
decisions in a framework of subsidiarity (considerable autonomy at the
national level). They are serviced by strong global secretariats, accountable to
the boards. Examples include Amnesty International (AI), CIVICUS (World
Alliance for Citizen Participation) and Consumers International (CI).
• CSO networks: these are collaborative arrangements formed for broad partner-
ship amongst like-minded organizations or cooperation on specific activities.
They may have international boards and secretariats; but most power and
implementation capacity remains with the CSO members. They comprise:
– Confederations: network members are fully independent but agree a set
of common ground rules and work together on specific activities where
there is mutual advantage. Examples include the World Council of
Churches, the ICFTU, Oxfam International (OI), Friends of the Earth
International (FOE-I) and international inter-faith networks (such as
the United Religions Initiative).
– Informal networks: CSOs come together around a common cause to
seek cooperation but with little agreed governance arrangements, leader-
ship or membership requirements. Examples include the ICBL and the
Jubilee 2000 movement for developing-world debt relief.
• Social movements: these comprise amorphous and fluid groupings of activ-
ists, CSOs and supporters in which the bonds are common grievances or
convictions, and shared goals for societal and policy change (rather than
structure). They connect people with causes through developing communities
of interest around shared conditions and include:
– Rooted movements: these are webs of citizens formed at the national
level to attack mutually experienced grievances. International exchange
and networking with counterparts in other countries can be powerful
for sharing ideas and boosting morale; but mobilization and analysis is
primarily at the national level. Examples include feminist, agrarian
reform, gay rights and civil rights movements.
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