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Fundamentals of
SI ble
Chemical Science
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C000.indd i 2/4/2009 8:41:58 PM
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C000.indd ii 2/4/2009 8:41:59 PM
Fundamentals 01
SUSlai Ie
Chemical Science
Stanlev E. Manahan
~CRC Press
V Taylor &. Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York
eRe Press is an imprint of the
Taylor &: Francis Group, an Inform. business
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C000.indd iii 2/4/2009 8:41:59 PM
CRC Press
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CONTENTS
PREFACE XIII
AUTHOR XV
1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY AND
GREEN CHEMISTRY 1
1.1. IF WE DO NOT CHANGE DIRECTION 1
1.2. THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF CHEMISTRY 2
1.3. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND GREEN CHEMISTRY 3
1.4. A MINI-COURSE IN CHEMISTRY 5
1.5. THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER 5
Subatomic Particles and Atoms 5
Atoms and Elements 6
The Periodic Table 7
1.6. CHEMICAL BONDS AND COMPOUNDS 8
Chemical Compounds 9
Ionic Bonds 10
1
Summary of Chemical Compounds and the Chemical Bond 111
Molecular Mass 11
1
1.7. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS 12
1
1.8. NUMBERS IN CHEMISTRY: EXPONENTIAL NOTATION 112
Addition and Subtraction of Exponential Numbers 13
1
Multiplication and Division of Exponential Numbers 114
1.9..
1.9 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND UNCERTAINTIES IN NUMBERS 115
Significant Figures in Calculations 15
1
Rounding Numbers 17
1
Use of Three Significant Digits 117
1.10. MEASUREMENTS AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT 18
1
SI Units of Measurement 118
Multiples of Units 18
1
Metric and English Systems of Measurement 118
1.11. UNITS OF MASS 2
20
1.12. UNITS OF LENGTH 21
2
1.13. UNITS OF VOLUME 222
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vi Contents
1.14. TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND ENERGY 23
2
Temperature Scales 23
2
Melting Point and Boiling Point 26
2
Heat and Energy 27
2
1.15. PRESSURE 2
27
1.16. UNITS
UNITS AND THEIR USE IN CALCULATIONS 2
28
Unit Conversion Factors 228
CHAPTER SUMMARY 3
31
Answers to Chapter Summary 33
3
LITERATURE CITED 36
3
QUESTIONS
QUE STIONS AND PROBLEMS 37
3
2. MATTER AND MATERIALS 45
2.1. WHAT IS MATTER AND WHY DOES IT MATTER
FOR SUSTAINABILITY AND GREEN CHEMISTRY? 45
4
2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER 46
4
Some General Types of Matter 47
4
Mixtures and Pure Substances 48
4
Summary of the Classification of Matter 49
4
2.3. QUANTITY OF MATTER: THE MOLE 49
4
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number 50
5
2.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 550
Density 51
5
Specific Gravity 5
52
Color 53
5
Electromagnetic Radiation and Green Chemistry 554
2.5. STATES OF MATTER 555
2.6. GASES 5
56
The Gas Laws 57
5
Gas Law Calculations 59
5
2.7. LIQUIDS AND SOLUTIONS 62
6
Evaporation and Condensation
Condensation of Liquids 6
62
Vapor Pressure 63
6
Solutions 663
2.8. SOLIDS 6
65
2.9. THERMAL PROPERTIES 66
Melting Point 66
6
Boiling Point 66
6
Specific Heat 66
6
Heat of Vaporization 68
6
Heat of Fusion 669
Phase Change Materials in Green Technology 69
6
2.10. SEPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MATTER 770
Distillation 70
7
Separation in Waste Treatment 71
7
2.11. THE GREEN CHEMISTRY OF MATTER 74
7
CHAPTER SUMMARY 75
7
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 8
81
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Contents vii
3. ATOMS AND ELEMENTS 87
3.1. ATOMS AND ELEMENTS 8
87
3.2. THE ATOMIC THEORY 87
8
Laws That Are Explained by Dalton’s Atomic Theory 87
8
Small Size of Atoms 89
8
Atomic Mass 90
9
3.3. SUBATOMIC PARTICLES 990
3.4. THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 991
Atomic Number, Isotopes, and Mass Number of Isotopes 91
9
Electrons in Atoms 92
9
3.5. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 93
9
3.6. HYDROGEN,
HYDROGEN, THE SIMPLEST ATOM 93
9
Designation of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table 994
Showing Electrons in Hydrogen Atoms and Molecules 94
9
Properties of Elemental Hydrogen 94
Production and Uses of Elemental Hydrogen 995
3.7. HELIUM, THE FIRST ATOM WITH A FILLED ELECTRON SHELL 95
Occurrence and Uses of Helium 996
3.8. LITHIUM, THE FIRST ATOM WITH BOTH INNER
AND OUTER ELECTRONS 97
9
Uses of Lithium 97
9
Lithium, a Key Material in Green Technology 999
3.9. THE SECOND PERIOD, ELEMENTS 4–10 999
Beryllium, Atomic Number 4 99
Boron, Atomic Number 5 100
10
Carbon, Atomic Number 6 101
10
Nitrogen, Atomic Number 7 101
10
Oxygen, Atomic Number 8 102
10
Fluorine, Atomic Number 9 103
10
Neon, Atomic Number 10 103
10
3.10. ELEMENTS 11–20, AND BEYOND 104
10
The Elements B Beyond
eyond Calcium 10
106
3.11. A MORE DETAILED LOOK AT ATOMIC STRUCTURE 107
10
Electromagnetic Radiation 107
10
3.12. QUANTUM AND WAVE MECHANICAL MODELS OF
ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 108
10
The Wave Mechanical Model of Atomic Structure 109
09
Multielectron Atoms and Quantum Numbers 111
11
3.13. ENERGY LEVELS OF ATOMIC ORBITALS 113
1
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity 1115
3.14. SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS 116
11
3.15. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION 11
117
3.16. ELECT
ELECTRONS
RONS IN THE FIRST 20 ELEMENTS 118
1
Electron Configuration of Hydrogen 118
1
Electron Configuration of Helium 119
11
Electron Configurations of Elements 2–20 11
119
Lithium 119
19
Valence Electrons 119
19
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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viii Contents
Beryllium 120
12
Filling the 2p
2 Orbitals 120
12
Filling the 3s,
3 , 3p,
3 , and 4s
4 Orbitals 121
1
3.17. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 1122
CHAPTER SUMMARY 126
1
Answers to Chapter Summary 1128
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 131
13
4. CHEMICAL BONDS, MOLECULES,
AND COMPOUNDS 139
4.1. CHEMICAL BONDS AND COMPOUND FORMATION 13
139
Chemical Bonds and Valence Electrons 14
140
4.2. CHEMICAL BONDING AND THE OCTET RULE 14
141
The Octet Rule for Some Diatomic Gases 141
14
The Octet Rule for Chemical Compounds 14
141
4.3. IONIC BONDING 14
142
Electron Configurations of Ions from a Single Atom 142
14
Sodium Chloride as an Ionic Compound 143
14
Energetics in Ionic Bonding 145
14
Energy of Ion Attraction 146
1
Lattice Energy 14
147
Ion Size 14
147
Formation of Some Example Ionic Compounds 149
14
4.4. FUNDAMENTALS OF COVALENT BONDING 150
15
Chemical Bonds and Energy 150
15
Covalent Bonding 15
150
4.5. COVALENT BONDS IN COMPOUNDS 152
15
4.6. SOME OTHER ASPECTS OF COVALENT BONDING 154
15
Multiple Bonds and Bond Order 154
15
Lengths and Strengths of Multiple Bonds 155
15
Electronegativity and Covalent Bonding 156
15
Sharing Electrons—Unequally 157
15
Coordinate Covalent Bonds 158
15
Compounds That Do Not Conform to the Octet Rule 159
15
Resonance Structures 160
16
4.7. CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF COMPOUNDS 16
161
What a Chemical Formula States 16
161
Percentage Composition from Chemical Formulas 16
162
Calculation of Chemical Formulas 16
163
Empirical Formula from Percentage Composition 164
16
4.8. THE NAMES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 16
167
Binary Molecular Compounds 167
16
Names of Ionic Compounds 168
16
4.9. ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS 170
17
Acids 170
17
Bases 171
17
Salts 1171
CHAPTER SUMMARY 172
17
Answers to Chapter Summary 173
1
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 175
1
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Contents ix
5. CHEMICAL REACTIONS, EQUATIONS,
AND STOICHIOMETRY 181
5.1. THE SENTENCES OF CHEMISTRY 181
18
Chemical Reactions and Equations: The Sentences of the Chemical Language 18
181
Quantitative Calculations from Chemical Equations 182
18
5.2. THE INFORMATION IN A CHEMICAL EQUATION 18
182
Chemical Reactions 182
18
Expressing a Chemical Reaction as a Chemical Equation 182
18
Symbols Used in Chemical Equations 183
18
5.3. BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 184
18
Balancing the Equation for the Reaction of Hydrogen Sulfide
with Sulfur Dioxide 18
184
Some Other Examples of Balancing Equations 185
18
Summary of Steps in Balancing an Equation 18
187
5.4. WILL A REACTION OCCUR? 18
188
5.5. HOW FAST DOES A REACTION GO? 190
19
5.6. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 190
19
5.7. QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM CHEMICAL REACTIONS 19
193
Review of Quantitative Chemical Terms 19
193
Calcination of Limestone 19
194
5.8. WHAT IS STOICHIOMETRY AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? 195
19
The Mole Ratio Method of Stoichiometric Calculations 196
19
CHAPTER SUMMARY 200
20
Answers to Chapter Summary 20
202
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 203
2
6. ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS 209
6.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS 209
20
6.2. THE NATURE OF ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS 210
21
Hydrogen Ion and Hydroxide Ion 210
21
Acids 21
210
Bases 211
21
Salts 211
21
Amphoteric Substances 21
212
Metal Ions as Acids 212
21
Salts That Act as Bases 213
21
Salts That Act as Acids 21
213
6.3. CONDUCTANCE OF ELECTRICITY BY ACIDS, BASES,
AND SALTS IN SOLUTION 21
214
Electrolytes 21
215
6.4. DISSOCIATION OF ACIDS AND BASES IN WATER 216
2
6.5. THE HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION AND BUFFERS 21
218
Buffers 219
21
6.6. pH
H AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HYDROGEN ION
AND HYDROXIDE ION CONCENTRATIONS 21
219
Acid–Base Equilibria 221
22
6.7. PREPARATION OF ACIDS 222
22
6.8. PREPARATION OF BASES 22
223
6.9. PREPARATION OF SALTS 225
22
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x Contents
6.10. ACID SALTS AND BASIC SALTS 22
227
Acid Salts 227
22
Basic Salts 22
227
6.11. WATER OF HYDRATION 22
227
6.12. NAMES OF ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS 228
22
Acids 228
22
Bases 228
22
Salts 22
229
CHAPTER SUMMARY 23
232
Answers to Chapter Summary 233
23
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 236
23
7. SOLUTIONS AND SOLVENTS 243
7.1. WHAT ARE SOLUTIONS? WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT? 243
24
Reactions in Solution 24
244
Solutions in Living Systems 245
24
Solutions in the Environment 24
245
Industrial
Industrial Uses of Solutions 246
24
7.2. SOLVENTS 24
246
7.3. WATER—A UNIQUE SOLVENT 247
24
7.4. THE SOLUTION PROCESS AND SOLUBILITY 24
249
7.5. SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS 251
25
Molar Concentration 25
252
Diluting Solutions 254
25
Molar Concentration of H⫹ Ion and pH 255
25
Solubility 256
25
7.6. STANDARD SOLUTIONS AND TITRATIONS 25
257
7.7. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 25
259
Freezing Point Depression 259
25
Boiling Point Elevation 25
259
Osmosis 259
25
7.8. SOLUTION EQUILIBRIA 261
26
Solution Equilibria 26
261
Solubilities of Gases 26
263
7.9. COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS 265
2
Kinds of Colloidal Particles 26
265
Colloid Stability 26
266
Coagulation and Flocculation of Colloidal Particles 26
268
CHAPTER SUMMARY 268
26
Answers to Chapter Summary 270
27
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 2
272
8. CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY 275
8.1. CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY 27
275
8.2. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 276
27
8.3. OXIDATION–REDUCTION IN SOLUTION 279
27
8.4. THE DRY CELL 28
281
8.5. STORAGE BATTERIES 28
283
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Contents xi
8.6. USING ELECTRICITY TO MAKE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCUR 28
286
Electrolysis of Water: A Green Technology 286
28
Electrolytic Manufacture of Chemicals 28
288
8.7. ELECTROPLATING 28
289
8.8. FUEL CELLS 290
29
8.9. SOLAR CELLS 29
291
8.10. REACTION TENDENCY 29
292
Measurement of E 0 293
29
E 0 Values and Reaction Tendency 29
294
8.11. EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION: NERNST EQUATION 29
296
8.12. POTENTIOMETRY 297
29
8.13. CORROSION 29
299
CHAPTER SUMMARY 300
30
Answers to Chapter Summary 302
30
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 304
30
9. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 307
9.1. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 307
30
Molecular Geometry in Organic Chemistry 30
307
9.2. HYDROCARBONS 308
30
Alkanes 308
30
Alkenes and Alkynes 314
31
Alkenes and Cis–Trans Isomerism 315
31
Condensed Structural Formulas 315
31
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 316
31
9.3. ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND CLASSES
OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 31
318
Organo-Oxygen Compounds 319
31
Organonitrogen Compounds 321
32
Organohalide Compounds 322
32
Organosulfur Compounds 326
32
Organophosphorus Compounds 32
328
9.4. SYNTHETIC POLYMERS 33
330
CHAPTER SUMMARY 332
33
Answers to Chapter Summary 334
33
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES 33
335
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 33
336
10. BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 339
10.1. BIOCHEMISTRY 339
33
Biomolecules 34
340
10.2. BIOCHEMISTRY AND THE CELL 340
34
Major Cell Features 34
340
10.3. PROTEINS 34
342
Protein Structure 34
344
Denaturation of Proteins 346
34
10.4. CARBOHYDRATES 347
34
10.5. LIPIDS 349
34
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xii Contents
10.6. ENZYMES 35
351
10.7. NUCLEIC ACIDS 355
35
Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis 358
35
Modified DNA 35
359
10.8. RECOMBINANT DNA AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 35
359
10.9. METABOLIC PROCESSES 36
360
Energy-Yielding Processes 360
36
CHAPTER SUMMARY 361
36
Answers to Chapter Summary 362
36
LITERATURE CITED 363
36
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES 364
36
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 364
36
INDEX 367
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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PREFACE
Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry,
Chemistry, 3rd edition, is designed to build upon the approach
successfully employed in the first two editions while also expanding the scope of the book into the
strongly emerging area of Sustainability Science and Technology, which includes green chemistry
and industrial ecology. The book takes into account the needs of those who have little or no
knowledge of chemistry, but who require the basics of chemical science for their trade, profession,
or study curriculum, as well as for readers who want to have an understanding of the fundamentals
of sustainable chemistry and its crucial role in maintaining a livable planet.
The book are a basic course in chemical science that includes the fundamentals of organic
chemistry and biochemistry. In presenting the fundamentals, every effort is made to relate them to
real-world examples from environmental chemistry, green chemistry, and related areas while still
maintaining brevity and simplicity.
One of the unique features of the book is a “mini-course” in chemistry presented in the first
few pages of Chapter 1 and consisting of the most basic concepts and terms needed by the reader to
really begin to understand chemistry. To study chemistry, it is necessary to know a few of the essen-
tials, i.e., what an atom is and what is meant by elements, chemical formulas, chemical bonds,
molecular mass, and chemical reactions. With these terms defined in very basic ways, it is then pos-
sible to go into greater detail concerning chemical concepts without having to assume—as many
introductory chemistry books do somewhat awkwardly—that the reader knows the meaning of
these terms.
Chapter 2 discusses matter largely on the basis of its physical nature and behavior, and intro-
duces physical and chemical properties, states of matter, the mole as a quantity of matter, and other
ideas required to visualize chemical substances as physical entities. Chapters 3–5 cover the core of
chemical knowledge constructed as a language in which the elements and the atoms that form them
(Chapter 3) are presented as letters of an alphabet, the compounds made up from the elements
(Chapter 4) are analogous to words, the reactions by which compounds are synthesized and changed
(Chapter 5) are like sentences in the chemical language, and the mathematical aspects hold it all
together quantitatively. Chapters 6–8 constitute the remainder of the material that is usually regarded
as essential in general chemistry. A basic coverage of organic chemistry is presented in Chapter 9.
Although this topic is often omitted at the beginning chemistry level, those who deal with the real
world of environmental pollution, hazardous wastes, agricultural science, and other applied areas
quickly realize that a rudimentary understanding of organic chemistry is required. Chapter 10 covers
biological chemistry, an area essential to understanding material presented in later chapters that
deal with environmental and toxicological chemistry.
The author welcomes input from readers. Comments and questions may be sent to the author
at the following e-mail address:
[email protected] © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C000.indd xiii 2/4/2009 8:42:00 PM
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C000.indd xiv 2/4/2009 8:42:00 PM
AUTHOR
Stanley E. Manahan is a professor of chemistry at the University of Missouri (Columbia) where
he has been on the faculty since 1965. He received his A.B. in chemistry from the Emporia State
University in 1960 and his PhD in analytical chemistry from the University of Kansas in 1965.
Since 1968, his primary research and professional activities have been in environmental chemistry,
toxicological chemistry, waste gasification, and gasification of biomass for energy production.
His classic textbook, Environmental Chemistry
Chemistry,, 8th edition (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida,
2004), has been in print continuously in various editions since 1972 and is the longest standing title
on this subject in the world. Other books that he has written are Green Chemistry and the Ten
Commandments of Sustainability
Sustainability,, 2nd edition (ChemChar Research, Inc., 2006), Green Science
and Technology: The Path to a Sustainable Future Future,, 2nd edition (CRC Press/Taylor & Francis,
2006), Toxicological Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Biochemistry, 3rd edition (CRC Press/Lewis Publishers,
2001), Industrial Ecology: Environmental Chemistry and Hazardous Waste (CRC Press/Lewis
Publishers, 1999), Environmental Science and Technology (CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, 1997),
Hazardous Waste Chemistry, Toxicology and Treatment (Lewis Publishers, 1992), Quantitative
Chemical Analysis
Analysis,, (Brooks/Cole, 1986), and General Applied Chemistry
Chemistry,, 2nd edition (Willard
Grant Press, 1982).
Dr. Manahan has lectured on the topics of environmental chemistry, toxicological chemistry,
waste treatment, and green chemistry throughout the U.S. as an American Chemical Society Local
Section Tour Speaker. He has also presented plenary lectures on these topics at international
meetings in Puerto Rico, the University of the Andes in Mérida in Venezuela, Hokkaido University
in Japan, the National Autonomous University in Mexico City, and in Italy and France. Since 1998,
he has taught a short course annually at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. He was
the recipient of the Year 2000 Award of the Environmental Chemistry Division of the Italian
Chemical Society.
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C000.indd xv 2/4/2009 8:42:00 PM
1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY AND
GREEN CHEMISTRY
1.1. IF WE DO NOT CHANGE DIRECTION
An old Chinese proverb states, “If we do not change direction, we are likely to
end up where we are headed.” At no time has this statement been more appropriate
than as it applies to humankind at the present time. Blessed with a miniscule, but
unique and remarkable, speck of the universe that has conditions conducive to life,
humans are on a course that, if not altered, will result in destruction of the only
home that they have or ever can have. About 2 billion years ago, one other type
of organism, photosynthetic cyanobacteria, used captured solar energy to produce
biomass and liberate atmospheric elemental oxygen to the atmosphere, making
possible all of the life forms that require this gas for their metabolic processes.
This was a planet-altering process that determined the life forms that have existed
on Earth in all the eons since it occurred and that caused massive chemical
change, such as the formation of iron oxide deposits from the oxidation of soluble
iron in water. Until now, no type of organism has caused such a drastic change on
Earth, particularly in its atmosphere. However, by burning enormous quantities
of fossil fuels at an ever-increasing rate, humans are well on the way to doubling
pre-industrial levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Virtually all reputable authori-
ties agree that this will have a significant warming effect on the global climate.
Whereas the atmosphere created by the humble single-celled cyanobacteria made
possible the development of millions of kinds of new species, what humans are
doing to the climate now will almost certainly result in the extinction of hundreds of
thousands—perhaps millions—of species.
The challenge facing humankind today is sustainability
sustainability,, the maintenance and
enhancement of conditions that will enable humans and other organisms to exist on
Planet Earth. This means living within the limits of materials extracted from Earth
or taken from its atmosphere or oceans. It means, especially, dealing sustainably
with energy, essential to modern civilizations, but, with the present reliance on fossil
fuels that pump global-warming carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, unsustainable
with present patterns of acquisition and use.
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C001.indd 1 2/4/2009 9:35:24 PM
2 Fundamentals of Sustainable Chemical Science
So, collectively, humankind faces a monumental challenge. It is relatively easy to
see the enormous problems that face us. It is also easy for some to debunk what they
consider to be alarmist rhetoric and to contend that doubling the small fraction of a
percent of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere within a few decades cannot possibly
seriously damage Earth’s carrying capacity or that cropland is so abundant and can be
made so productive that diverting a significant portion of it to the intensive cultivation
of corn-based ethanol fuel cannot have a significant adverse effect on world food
production. Others contend that the situation is hopeless and that, in a world in which
people of similar heritage who differ mainly in details of their creeds persist in trying
to kill each other, it is futile to even try to get Earth’s diverse peoples to cooperate on
a global scale to ensure sustainability. Evidence is mounting against the deniers. It is a
fact that glaciers are melting at a pace never before seen in the time over which historical
records exist. It is a fact that people in cities in the far Southern Hemisphere over
which the Antarctic ozone hole spreads during the early spring months of September
and October find it necessary to take protective measures to prevent debilitating expo-
sure to ultraviolet radiation that penetrates the stratospheric ozone layer thinned by the
effects of chlorofluorocarbon (Freon) compounds. It is a fact that fluctuating prices of
gasoline show that limits are being reached on available resources of petroleum.
As a result of the challenges facing humankind and its relationship with Planet
Earth, thoughtful people have begun to take action to try to ensure their survival and
that of their descendents. Measures to prevent loss of essential Earth support systems
have been ongoing in some sectors for quite some time. By 1900, it was recognized
that the cultivation of soil in the U.S. that had lain undisturbed until the arrival of
European settlers was causing unacceptable soil erosion. The great damage caused to
former prairie lands of the U.S. Great Plains by drought and wind erosion during the
dustbowl days of the 1930s led to intensive government-funded initiatives in soil con-
servation. Rachel Carson’s classic 1962 book Silent Spring brought to public attention
the damage caused to wildlife by the indiscriminate use of persistent pesticides and
helped bring about the massive environmental improvement efforts of much of the
world in the latter part of the 20th century. By around 2000, the environmental move-
ment had developed an emphasis upon sustainability and self-regulating systems for
environmental preservation. Industrial ecology, which treats industrial enterprises as
mutually beneficial interacting systems analogous to species in natural ecosystems,
had emerged as a dynamic discipline. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a strong
“green” movement in which human enterprises are dedicated to environmental
protection, efficient uses of materials and energy, maximum recycling, and minimum
generation of waste. Now many individuals and enterprises are dedicated to green
engineering and, specifically in chemistry, to green chemistry.
1.2. THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is unavoidable. We eat chemicals. We are made of chemicals. We are
surrounded by chemicals. All of these things are true because chemistry is the
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C001.indd 2 2/4/2009 9:35:25 PM
Introduction to Chemistry and Green Chemistry 3
science of matter; all things are chemical. Therefore, chemistry deals with the air we
breathe, the water we drink, the soil that grows our food, and vital life substances
and processes. Our own bodies contain a vast variety of chemical substances and are
tremendously sophisticated chemical factories that carry out an incredible number
of complex chemical processes.
There is a tremendous concern today about the uses—and particularly the
misuses—of chemistry as it relates to the environment. Ongoing events serve as
constant reminders of threats to the environment ranging from individual expo-
sures to toxicants to phenomena on a global scale that may cause massive, perhaps
catastrophic, alterations in climate as discussed above. These include, as examples,
air quality in Beijing so bad that it raised concerns over the health of athletes in
the 2008 Summer Olympics, pets dying from consumption of food illegally laced
with toxic melamine put into animal food to artificially raise its nitrogen content
(used as a measure of protein), and tanks of toxic chlorine gas combined with ter-
rorist explosives to add to the toll and misery caused by these diabolical devices
in Iraq. Furthermore, large numbers of employees must deal with hazardous
substances and wastes in laboratories and the workplace. All such matters
involve chemistry for understanding of the problems and for arriving at solutions
to them.
The central role that chemistry must play in dealing with the challenges facing
humankind and its stewardship of Planet Earth is undeniable. People in a large
variety of areas and enlightened citizens need to have some basic knowledge of
chemistry. The purpose of this book is to provide such knowledge for a broad range
of people who want and need it. The book presents an overview of chemistry,
including organic chemistry (Chapter 9) and biological chemistry (Chapter 10), at
a fundamental level. The book relates to sustainability science, environmental
chemistry, and green chemistry.
1.3. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND
GREEN CHEMISTRY
Environmental chemistry is that branch of chemistry that deals with the origins,
transport, reactions, effects, and fates of chemical species in the water, air, earth,
and living environments and the influence of human activities thereon.1 A related
discipline, toxicological chemistry, is the chemistry of toxic substances with emphasis
upon their interaction with biologic tissue and living systems.2 Besides being an
essential, vital discipline in its own right, environmental chemistry provides an excel-
lent framework for the study of chemistry, dealing with “general chemistry,” organic
chemistry, chemical analysis, physical chemistry, photochemistry, geochemistry,
and biological chemistry.
In its earlier stages of development dating from around the 1960s, the emphasis
in environmental chemistry was upon detection of pollution, cataloging its adverse
effects, and controlling pollutants once they were produced. This resulted in an
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
K10124_C001.indd 3 2/4/2009 9:35:25 PM
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