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Durability of Concrete
Modern Concrete Technology Series
A series of books presenting the state-of-the-art in concrete technology

Series Editors
Arnon Bentur
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Technion-Israel Institute of Technology

Sidney Mindess
Department of Civil Engineering University of British Columbia

Durability of Concrete: Design and Construction

Mark Alexander, Arnon Bentur, Sidney Mindess Hb: 978-1-138-74674-9
Sustainability of Concrete
Pierre-Claude Aïtcin, Sidney Mindess Hb: 978-1-138-07568-9
Binders for Durable and Sustainable Concrete
P. -C. Aïtcin Hb: 978-0-415-38588-6
Fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites 2nd Edition
A. Bentur & S. Mindess Hb: 978-0-415-25048-1
Diffusion of Chloride in Concrete
E. Poulsen & L. Mejlbro Hb: 978-0-419-25300-6
Pore Structure of Cement-Based Materials: Testing, Interpretation, and
Requirements
K. K. Aligizaki Hb: 978-0-419-22800-4
Aggregates in Concrete
M. G. Alexander & S. Mindess Hb: 978-0-415-25839-5
Fundamentals of Durable Reinforced Concrete
M. G. Richardson Hb: 978-0-419-23780-8
Sulfate Attack on Concrete
J. Skalny, J. Marchand & I. Odler Hb: 978-0-419-24550-6
Special Inorganic Cements
I. Odler Hb: 978-0-419-22790-8
Concrete Mixture Proportioning
F. de Larrard Hb: 978-0-419-23500-2
High Performance Concrete
P. -C. Aïtcin Hb: 978-0-419-19270-1
Optimization Methods for Material Design of Cement-Based Composites
Edited by A. Brandt Hb: 978-0-419-21790-9
Steel Corrosion in Concrete
A. Bentur, S. Diamond & N. Berke Hb: 978-0-419-22530-0
Durability of Concrete in Cold Climates
M. Pigeon & R. Pleau Hb: 978-0-419-19260-2
Concrete in Hot Environments
I. Soroka Hb: 978-0-419-15970-4
Concrete in the Maritime Environment
P. K. Mehta Hb: 978-1-85166-622-5
Durability of Concrete
Design and Construction

Mark Alexander, Arnon Bentur,

and Sidney Mindess
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1387-4674-9 (Paperback)

978-1-4822-3725-2 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reason-
able efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their
use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Alexander, Mark G., editor. | Bentur, Arnon, editor. | Mindess,

Sidney, editor.
Title: Durability of concrete : design and construction / [edited] by Mark
Alexander, Arnon Bentur and Sidney Mindess.
Other titles: Durability of concrete (CRC Press)
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2017] | Series: Modern concrete
technology series | Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017002663| ISBN 9781482237252 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138746749 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781482237269 (ebook : alk.
paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Concrete--Deterioration. | Concrete--Service life.
Classification: LCC TA440 .D81915 2017 | DDC 624.1/834--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017002663

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Web site at
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To our long-suffering wives

Lyn
Esty
Joanne
Contents

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Authors xxi

1 Introduction 1
References 9

2 Concrete as a modern construction material 11

2.1 Overview 11
2.2 Hydration, microstructure, and pore solution composition 14
2.2.1 Range of binder compositions 14
2.2.2 Microstructure and pore solution composition 18
2.3 Control of the rheology of fresh concrete 23
2.4 Control of density and concrete microstructure 26
2.5 Deformations and crack control 32
References 34

3 Materials for concretes in relation to durability 37

3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Portland cements and other binders 37
3.2.1 Chemical attack 38
3.2.1.1 Alkali–aggregate reaction 39
3.2.1.2 Sulfate attack 39
3.2.1.3 Acid attack 40
3.2.1.4 Other considerations 40
3.2.1.5 Fineness 41
3.2.1.6 C 3A content 41
3.2.2 Physical attack 42
3.2.2.1 Thermal effects 42

ix
x Contents

3.3 Aggregates 43
3.3.1 Physical mechanisms 44
3.3.1.1 Thermal effects 44
3.3.1.2 Moisture effects 45
3.3.1.3 Freezing and thawing 45
3.3.1.4 Abrasion and erosion 45
3.3.1.5 Maximum aggregate size 46
3.3.1.6 Recycled concrete aggregates 46
3.3.2 Chemical mechanisms 47
3.4 Water 47
3.5 Admixtures 48
3.5.1 Supplementary cementing materials 49
3.5.2 Chemical admixtures 49
3.6 Fibers 49
References 50

4 Concrete deterioration 53
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Concrete properties relevant to deterioration 56
4.2.1 Transport properties of concrete 56
4.2.1.1 Permeation 56
4.2.1.2 Absorption 56
4.2.1.3 Diffusion 57
4.2.1.4 Migration 58
4.2.1.5 Transport properties of cracked concrete 58
4.2.1.6 Summary of transport processes 59
4.2.2 Mechanical, physical, and chemical properties
of concrete in relation to deterioration 59
4.2.2.1 Mechanical and physical properties 59
4.2.2.2 Chemical properties 60
4.2.3 Cracking of concrete and its
influence on deterioration 62
4.3 Mechanisms of deterioration 66
4.3.1 Introduction 66
4.3.2 Mechanical and physical
deterioration mechanisms 77
4.3.3 Chemical deterioration mechanisms 77
4.3.3.1 Exchange reactions between
external aggressive medium and
components of hardened cement
paste (ion exchange or substitution) 77
 Contents xi

4.3.3.2 Hydrolysis and dissolution

of the products of cement
hydration (ion removal) 79
4.3.3.3 Expansive stresses caused by
conversion of the products of
hydration by agents (external
or internal) (ion addition) 79
4.3.4 Other factors to consider in chemical deterioration 82
4.3.5 Steel corrosion in reinforced concrete 82
4.3.5.1 Mechanism of steel corrosion in
concrete 83
4.3.5.2 Steel passivation and
depassivation in concrete 84
4.3.5.3 Corrosion products 84
4.3.5.4 Corrosion initiation 85
4.3.5.5 Chloride binding in concrete 87
4.3.5.6 Corrosion rate in concrete 87
4.3.5.7 Corrosion of steel in cracked concrete 87
4.3.5.8 Electrochemical corrosion and
nondestructive testing techniques 89
4.4 Design and construction considerations
to minimize concrete deterioration 89
4.4.1 Concrete mix design and materials selection 89
4.4.2 Reinforcement cover 91
4.4.3 Curing of concrete 91
4.5 Concluding comments 92
References 92
Further reading 94

5 Durability specifications, limit states, and modeling 97

5.1 Basic concepts 97
5.1.1 Performance versus prescriptive specifications 98
5.1.2 Predictive models of service life 100
5.1.3 Service life design codes and standards 102
5.1.4 Equivalent performance concept 104
5.1.5 Durability tests 106
5.2 Limit state approach 108
5.2.1 Ultimate limit states 109
5.2.2 Serviceability limit states 109
5.3 Probabilistic limit state approach 112
5.4 Partial factor design approach 118
xii Contents

5.5 Application of the limit state design methods 119

5.5.1 Limit states for corrosion of steel 120
5.5.1.1 Carbonation-induced corrosion 123
5.5.1.2 Chloride-induced corrosion 130
5.5.1.3 Residual service life-cycle estimation 142
5.5.2 Frost-induced internal damage 143
5.5.3 Chemical attack 146
5.6 Deemed-to-satisfy approach 146
5.7 Life-cycle cost analysis 152
References 153

6 Durability indicators (indexes) and their use in

engineering practice 155
6.1 Introduction 155
6.1.1 Durability problems in concrete
structures; need for a new approach 155
6.1.2 Traditional approach to concrete durability 157
6.1.3 fib Model Code (2010) 159
6.2 Durability indicators; durability indexes 160
6.2.1 Philosophy of durability indicators or indexes 161
6.2.1.1 Material indexing 162
6.2.1.2 Direct durability testing 163
6.2.1.3 Structural performance 164
6.2.1.4 Fundamental mechanistic studies 164
6.2.1.5 Correlations 164
6.2.2 Need for an integrated scheme 165
6.2.3 “Material potential” versus “as-built quality” 166
6.2.3.1 Differences between material
potential and as-built quality 166
6.3 Material parameters suitable as durability indicators 169
6.3.1 Physical parameters (physical
microstructure of the material) 169
6.3.1.1 Permeability to liquids and/or gases 169
6.3.1.2 Water absorption and sorptivity 169
6.3.1.3 Porosity; pore spacing parameters 170
6.3.2 Mechanical parameters 170
6.3.2.1 Abrasion resistance 171
6.3.3 Chemical parameters 171
6.3.3.1 Calcium hydroxide content 171
6.3.3.2 Degree of hydration 171
 Contents xiii

6.3.4 Physicochemical and electrochemical parameters 171

6.3.4.1 Diffusivity and conductivity 171
6.3.4.2 Resistivity 172
6.3.4.3 Electrical migration 172
6.3.4.4 Rapid chloride permeability test 173
6.3.5 Other parameters 173
6.4 Performance-based durability design and
specification: Link with durability indicators 174
6.4.1 Prescriptive versus performance-based design
and specification 174
6.4.1.1 Performance-based approach
to durability design 174
6.4.2 Durability indicators and performance-
based durability design 176
6.4.2.1 South African experience:
Durability indexes and a
performance-based approach 176
6.5 Use of durability indicators: Contemporary
approaches and examples of implementation 178
6.5.1 Approaches in different countries 178
6.5.1.1 Canada 178
6.5.1.2 France 182
6.5.1.3 The Netherlands 184
6.5.1.4 Norway 186
6.5.1.5 Spain 190
6.5.1.6 Switzerland 193
6.5.1.7 South Africa 194
6.6 Closure 202
References 203
Further reading 208

7 Durability testing: Transport properties 209

7.1 Introduction 209
7.2 Penetration tests 210
7.2.1 Nonreactive penetrating fluids 210
7.2.2 Reactive penetrating fluids 211
7.3 Penetration tests based on transport of water 212
7.4 Penetration tests based on transport
of nonreactive gaseous fluids 217
7.5 Chloride penetration 225
xiv Contents

7.6 Penetration of CO 2 and carbonation 234

References 237

8 Durability testing: Degradation mechanisms 241

8.1 Introduction 241
8.2 Tests identifying and quantifying
degradation processes of concrete 241
8.2.1 Alkali–aggregate reaction tests 242
8.2.2 Sulfate resistance tests 245
8.2.3 Freeze–thaw resistance 247
8.3 Corrosion of steel in concrete 248
8.3.1 Introduction 248
8.3.2 Electrochemical corrosion and
nondestructive testing techniques 249
8.3.3 Half-cell potential method 251
8.3.4 Concrete resistivity 254
8.3.5 Linear polarization resistance 256
8.3.6 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 259
References 261

9 Design of concrete mixtures for durability 263

9.1 Introduction 263
9.2 Fundamentals of mix design 264
9.2.1 Design procedures 265
9.2.2 Freezing and thawing 266
9.2.3 Sulfate attack 267
9.2.4 Alkali–aggregate reactions 270
9.2.4.1 Mitigation of AAR 271
9.2.4.2 Use of a low alkali cement 271
9.2.4.3 Use of a low w/c 271
9.2.4.4 Use of SCMs 271
9.2.4.5 Other chemical additions 272
9.2.5 Abrasion and erosion 272
9.2.6 Concrete exposed to sea water 272
9.2.6.1 Fresh concrete 273
9.2.6.2 Hardened concrete 273
9.2.7 Acid attack 274
9.2.8 Corrosion of steel in concrete 275
9.3 Concluding remarks 276
References 277
 Contents xv

10 Durability and construction 279

10.1 Introduction 279
10.2 Concrete manufacture 280
10.2.1 Batching of concrete mixes 280
10.2.1.1 Control of mixing water content 282
10.2.1.2 Quality control of concrete
constituents and concrete production 283
10.2.2 Concrete mixing 284
10.3 Site construction: Challenges and site practices 285
10.3.1 Concrete handling, placing, and compaction 286
10.3.2 Protection and curing 292
10.3.3 Cover control and cover measurement 297
10.3.3.1 Specification of cover and
cover measurement 298
10.3.3.2 Spacers or spacer blocks 301
10.4 Concreting in cold and hot conditions 303
10.4.1 Concreting in cold weather 303
10.4.2 Concreting in hot weather 304
10.5 Quality control for durability 306
10.5.1 Evaluating material potential quality 306
10.5.2 Evaluating as-built concrete quality 307
10.6 Case studies of durable construction 308
10.6.1 Concrete bridge, Øresund Link 309
10.6.1.1 Background and design 309
10.6.1.2 Concrete materials, mix designs,
and other relevant information 310
10.6.1.3 Construction and quality management 311
10.6.1.4 Inspection and maintenance 313
10.6.1.5 Summary 313
10.6.2 Construction of the new Panama Canal 314
10.6.2.1 Introduction: background,
structures, and environment 314
10.6.2.2 Concrete design philosophy and basis 314
10.6.2.3 Durability aspects and
critique of specification 315
10.6.2.4 Construction, testing, and verification 316
References 317
Further reading 319

Index 321
Preface

Concrete has been by far the most widely used construction material in the
world for most of the last 100 years, and this is unlikely to change in the
foreseeable future. However, concrete science and technology have changed
considerably over this time, and the rate of this change has accelerated
greatly over the past several decades. There are a number of reasons for this
change, including

• A much more detailed understanding of the hydration reactions and

the microstructure (and now the nanostructure) of the hardened
cement paste and their relationships with engineering properties,
which has permitted change based on science rather than on “trial-
and-error” experimentation
• The development of much more efficient superplasticizers
• The introduction of fiber-reinforced concrete
• Increasing demands for specialized concretes which require enhanced
concrete properties, that is, self-compacting concretes, concretes that
can be pumped to heights of over 600 m, concrete strengths of over
200 MPa, increased rates of strength gain, and so on
• Growing demands by infrastructure and building owners for
“­maintenance-free” concrete structures that have an assured service life

As a result, the concretes that we use today are very different from those
that the three authors of this book first worked with about 40 years ago.
However, the great progress achieved in cement and concrete technology
over this time has come with a price: today’s concretes are much more sensi-
tive to exactly how they are proportioned, mixed, placed, and cured. Despite
our increased knowledge, the number of material failures in concrete con-
struction does not appear to have decreased over this time. One of the con-
tributing factors to this state of affairs is the increasing demand for more
sustainable concrete, which in turn has led to the use of higher replacement
levels of the Portland cement, and a much wider array of cement extend-
ers (fillers and/or supplementary cementing materials). Unfortunately, the
long-term behavior of these more complex concretes is often uncertain.

xvii
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